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Paper prepared by Prof. Omar Hasan Kasule Sr. MB ChB (MUK), MPH (Harvard) DrPH (Harvard) Chairman, Institutional Review Board - KFMC
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION:
• Earth sciences study the earth geologically, hydrologically, and atmospherically.
• The sub-divisions of earth science are dealing with water (hydrology, glaciology, oceanography,), the atmosphere (meteorology, climatology), the solid earth (mineralogy, geochemistry, geology, geophysics, geomorphology), history (paleontology, stratigraphy, geochronology).
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT:
• Geologic sciences: The earliest European writing on earth science s was the book ‘On stones’ by a Greek philosopher called Theophrastus (372 – 287 BC). It remained a reference book for 2000 years.
• Ancient Chinese also wrote about rocks and minerals. Ancient writers speculated on the causes of volcanic eruptions. Aristotle thought that volcanic eruptions and earthquakes were due to underground hot winds. In medieval times, underground fluid movements were thought to be the cause of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• The Chines kept records of earthquakes and invented an instrument (seismograph) to detect them
• Finding marine life fossils in rocks suggested to the ancient Chinese that what was land was under the sea a long time ago.
• Ahl al Suffa wrote about the cyclical interchange between land and sea.
• Alchemists made speculations about minerals that were corrected with the development of modern chemistry.
• Study of different rocks in the 19th century contributed to the growth of geologic sciences. Rock formations were classified using a geological chronology. Radiometric dating invented in the 20th century improved geochronology. It uses the ratio of the parent to the daughter isotope to estimate geological age. Using x-rays crystallography developed further.
HISTORICAL - 1:
• Seismographic stations all over the world detect earth movements and predict earthquakes and the theory of plate tectonics was advanced to explain volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and mountain formation.
• In 1912 Pangea was proposed as the one original continent. Pang ea broke up into different continental blocks that drifted apart. In 1 937 2 primordial continents were suggested Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the south. Geologic evidence supports the theories of continental drift.
HISTORICAL - 2:
• Hydrologic sciences: Ancient Chinese and Greeks made speculations about the hydrologic cycle. The Chinese recognized the relationship between tides and lunar movements. Digging for underground water was carried out by several ancient civilizations including the Romans. By the 18th century, the role of evaporation from the seas and the fall of the vapor as the rain had been discovered as the explanation of the hydrologic cycle. Oceanography also made progress in the 19th century with the exploration of ocean depths. 97% of the earth’s water is in oceans and 3⁄4 of freshwater is locked in glaciers. A lot is underground leaving a very small proportion available as freshwater.
• Atmospheric sciences: By the 18th century atmospheric sciences had developed to distinguish air from water vapor and to describe clouds as made up of water vapor. Movements of clouds and wind s were explained on the basis of pressure changes. Different types of storms were described in the 19th century. Meteorological pre-dictions of weather started in the 19th century. Modern satellites are able to provide very accurate weather forecasting. Atmospheric radiation has been studied by satellites. Weather modification by seeding clouds to produce rain has been tried. Industrial pollution is causing major changes to the weather.
• Paleontology: Starting in the 17th-century study of paleontology progressed.
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PARADIGMS:
RESEARCH METHODS:
ISLAMIC EPISTEMOLOGICAL CRITIQUE:
ISLAMIC INTRODUCTION TO THE DISCIPLINE DISCIPLINE: