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Lecture for 1st year medical students on 23rd December 2000 by Professor Omar Hasan Kasule Sr.
OUTLINE
1.0 QUR’ANIC PERSPECTIVE OF CIVILIZATION
A. Qur’anic terminology
B. Stages of Human Civilization
C. Human body structure and function in relation to civilization
D. Social organization and Work
E. Conflict
2.0 QUR’ANIC ACCOUNT OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
A. The righteous
B. The transgressors
C. Jews
D. Christians
E. Others
3.0 SIIRAT of THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD AS A MODEL
A. Pre-Islamic Arabia
B. Muhammad as a human messenger
C. The Makkan period
D. The Madinan period
E. Lessons
4.0 THE ISLAMIC STATE, al dawlat al Islamiyat/dar al Islam
A. The rightly guided khilafat
B. The dynasties
C. The peripheries
D. Achievements and failures
E. Lessons for the Future
5.0 THE RISE and FALL OF CIVILISATIONS, al dawrat al hadhariyat
A. Concepts
B. Ancient civilizations
C. Regional powers
D. World empires
E. Lessons for the future
3.5.1 QUR’ANIC PERSPECTIVE OF CIVILIZATION
A. QUR’ANIC TERMINOLOGY
ISTI'IMAR:
The Qur’an uses the concept of isti’mar to refer to physical construction and development of the earth (p. 91 11:61). The primary purpose of isti’mar is to ease life for humans (p 92 2:22, 2:36, 7:24, 13:3, 15:19-20, 16:13, 16:15, 20:53, 21:31, 27:61, 31:10, 40:64, 43:10, 50:7, 51:48, 67:15, 71:19-20, 78:6, 88:20, 91:6) so that they can undertake the responsibilities of ibadat including physical development of the earth.
The term Isti’mar can be equated with civilisation with the understanding that a civilisation could be good or bad. There is a very vital difference between civilisation and modernisation. Civilisation refers to moral values of building a society. Modernisation refers to developments in technology. Not everything that is new and modern is an indication of civilisational growth. The Islamic laws about human interaction, al muamalat, are there to ensure that civilisational growth follows a definite moral code for the benefit of all. All human endeavour is building civilisation is considered ibadat. It must therefore be carried out with a clean intention and expectation of reward from Allah. Destruction of civilisation can be of material things or of humans. Material destruction can be by war, pollution, or neglect. Destruction of people involved immorality, ifsad, or social injustice.
QARIAT:
The word ‘qariyat’ is used by the Qur’an to refer to civilization or society (p 940 7:163, 10:98, 11:100, 12:82, 34:18, 43:31, 59:7). The people of the qariat are given bounties (p 941 2:58, 7:96, 7:161, 16:112). Allah warns people of the qariat (p 940 6:92, 6:131, 12:109, 25:51, 26:208, 28:59, 34:34, 36:13, 42:7, 43:23). The qariat can misbehave (p 941 16:112, 17:16, 28:58, 34:34, 43:43). The people can transgress dhulm (p 941 4:75, 11:102, 18:59, 21:11, 22:45, 22:48, 28:59) or become corrupt (p 941 6:123, 7:82, 7:88, 7:96, 17:16, 18:77, 21:74, 27:56, 28:58, 34:34, 43:23). It can be polluted kharaab (p 941 2:259, 27:34). The qariat can be punishment by famine, qaht (p 941 7:94-95, 16:112, 65:8-9). It can be destroyed in punishment (p 940 16:131, 7:4, 7:96-98, 11:102, 11:117, 15:4, 17:16, 17:58, 18:59, 21:6, 21:45, 22:45, 22:48, 25:40, 26:208, 27:56-58, 28:58-59, 29:31, 28:4, 46:27, 47:13).
UMMAT:
The word ummat is used to refer to a collection of humans, animals or even insects. The Qur’an uses the word ummat to refer to any group with a common purpose (p 150 2:128, 3:104, 11:8, 12:45, 16:120, 28:23, 43:22, 43:23). Various communities are described in the Qur’an. The righteous were blessed with material success. The arrogant and disobedient were punished and were destroyed. A community may have both good and bad individuals. It can have good and bad groups of individuals. The evil of the bad can bring punishment and destruction to all including the good.
BASHAR/INSAAN
All humans all over the world are one inter-breeding species. Modern DNA evidence points to humans having a single genetic origin. The different ethnic groups or races are very similar in most aspects. The differences seen are superficial and reflect Allah’s majesty who created people to fit different environments. Humans have a spectrum of colors with no clear demarcation between one racial group and another. People living in the hot tropical regions have dark skins that protect them from ultra-violet rays. Those who live the cold artic regions have paler skins.
A civilization is strong if it has energetic and productive people. The best resource is people and successful civilizations know how to train and develop them. There is a critical minimum number of people needed to sustain a civilization. It is for that reason that big political powers have always been entities with a large population. A bigger population means a larger tax base and more resources for military and socio-economic development. A civilization needs military power to defend its interests and well-being. Some times this power may be used negatively in aggressive pursuits.
B. STAGES OF HUMAN CIVILIZATION
HUNTING and GATHERERS
The first humans lived primitive lives. They hunted animals and gathered plant products for food. They were nomadic and lived in small groups. They used simple tools made of stone or wood. Their main concern was survival by getting their daily food and being protected from enemies. They had little material or social development.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the mother of civilization. The start of agriculture in human history enabled people to settle down in one place instead of roaming around hunting animals and gathering fruits. They domesticated plants and animals. They also domesticated themselves in a way. Their life became more organized. With a settled life they had to organize government, laws, and develop a social structure. Human life changed from just surviving to building a civilization. The earliest recorded human civilizations developed along the fertile river banks of the Nile, Euphrates, and the Indus rivers. These valleys had fertile soils and water to support agriculture. The earliest record of agriculture are in Mesopotamia more than 10,000 years ago. Besides growing crops humans also learned to domesticate animals.
Agriculture, the exploitation of the earth and the soil, could be equated with civilization, isti’mar. Agriculture is perhaps the earliest form of positive isti’mar. The Qur’an mentions bringing earth back to life, ihya al ardh (p 91 2:30, 6:165, 7:10, 7:129, 10:14, 27:62, 35:39, 38:26). The Qur’an mentions building the earth, i’imar al ardh (p 91-92 7:74, 11:61, 18:93-97, 30:9). Negative isti’mar is also related to the soil. The Qur’an talks about Ifsaad al ardh (p 96 2:11, 2:27, 2:205, 5:32-33, 7:56, 7:74, 7:85, 8:73, 7:85, 11:116, 26:152, 26:183, 27:48, 28:77, 29:36, 38:28, 42:42, 47:22-23) and kharab al ardh (p 93 1:48, 14:48, 16:45, 37:87, 28:81, 29:40, 34:9, 39:58, 50:44, 54:12, 56:46, 67:16, 69:14, 73:14, 84:3-4, 89:21, 99:1-2).
TECHNOLOGY
Technological development occurred when humans were settled in stable communities. Technological development has been by trial and error and often mistakes were made. Humans have always tried to discover new technology to manufacture tools that in turn are used in the exploitation of natural resources. Bones and pieces of wood were the earliest tools used. During the Stone Age stone tools were used. Metal tools made of copper at first replaced these. Bronze was later used because it was stronger. The discovery of iron, a stronger metal, enabled manufacture of even stronger tools. In the past 2 centuries humans have found means of making steel, reinforced iron. Humans are now making tools from artificial materials. The discovery of fire signaled human use of energy for his purposes. Later other forms of energy were discovered such as wind energy and the energy of waterfalls. Animal muscles were then used in place of human muscles. It was not until the past 200 years that new forms of energy were discovered to replace human and animal muscles: thermal energy from burning fossil fuels, electro-magnetic energy, and nuclear energy. Early humans used their feet for transport. They later learned how to use animals for quicker transport of humans and goods. Boats were constructed for water-based transportation systems. The discovery of wheeled vehicles made movement even faster. Wheeled transport developed in places with suitable topography and could not develop in the dense forests of the tropics. Early humans lived in caves. They later learned how to construct dwellings to protect themselves from the elements of weather.
C. HUMAN BODY STUCTURE and FUNCTION IN RELATION TO CIVILIZATION
BRAIN
The sophisticated human brain has been central in growth of human civilization. It has given humans the following potentials needed for progress: creativity & innovation, problem solving, forward planning, and self-protection.
ERECT POSTURE
The erect posture not made human locomotion more efficient. Humans are able to survey a wide field of vision while moving, a facility not available to four-legged animals. The erect posture also freed the upper limbs for manipulation of objects unlike 4-legged animals that use all their 4 limbs for locomotion.
VERSATILE HAND
The human hand is very versatile and can make very fine and graded movements. It has enabled humans to make and use tools of increasing sophistication
LONG CHILDHOOD FOR SKILL TRAINING
Humans take the longest time to reach independent adulthood. This is because they need that much time for training and learning the culture of their society. During the long period of training humans learn practical skills. Living in a family or society also stimulates and develops the intellect. Thus humans, unlike other animals, are able to accumulate knowledge and experiences from one generation to another.
METABOLIC ADAPTATION
Human metabolism is adapted to be able to lead a sophisticated life. For example humans do not need to eat all the time. They have limited ability to store food.
D. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION and WORK
Social organization can be looked at as being units at increasing levels of sophistication. The simplest unit is the individual who is a member of the nuclear family. The nuclear family is in turn part of the extended family. Several families make up a clan and several clans make up a tribe. Many tribes make a nation. The modern nation-state is made up of many ethnic groups. A well organized human society must be able to protect diin, nafs, nasl, aql, and mal. It must have equilibrium between the spiritual and the material. It must operate within a moral context. Thus isti’mar requires a community and organization.
WORK, ‘amal
The Qur’anic term ‘amal does not distinguish between prescribed acts of ibadat and other righteous human activity. All human endeavor is ibadat. Work is a test for humans (p 839 7:129, 7:129, 10:14, 11:7, 18:7, 67:2). There is reward for all types of work; because any human endeavor with the right intention is considered ibadat (p 840 2:85, 3:30, 6:132, 11:15, 11:14, 16:93, 16:111, 18:49, 21:59, 23:63, 24:64, 36:54, 39:39, 39:70, 41:46, 45:15, 45:28, 26:19, 47:33, 47:35, 49:14, 52:16, 52:21, 58:6-7, 64:7, 99:7-8). Humans are argued to work (p 840 6:135, 9:105, 11:93, 11:121, 18:110, 34:11, 34:13, 39:39, 41:5, 41:40, 67:15). They are free to choose the type of work they want to do (p 841 4:66, 17:18-19, 17:84, 41:40, 73:19, 74:37, 76:29, 78:39, 81:28, 92:4-10). Work can be good (p 841 9:121, 16:96-99, 24:38, 29:7, 39:35, 46:16). It can also be bad (p 841 3:28, 3:30, 5:90, 7:28, 11:78, 12:10, 12:32, 12:59, 21:68, 21:74, 26:74, 85:7). Good work is rewarded (p 842 2:231, 2:231, 3:30, 4:30, 4:123, 7:147, 7:180, 10:106, 16:28, 16:33-35, 25:68, 27:84, 27:90, 28:84, 29:55, 30:41, 32:14, 34:33, 40:40, 41:27, 41:50, 45:33, 53:31, 66:7, 83:36, 99:8) and is considered ‘amal salih (p 844 2:215, 4:127, 5:67, 8:73, 23:100, 27:227, 27:19, 33:6, 35:10, 41:33, 41:46, 42:26, 45:15, 46:15, p 844-6 2:25, 2:62, 2:82, 2:277, 3:57, 3:136, 3:195, 4:57, 4:114, 4:122, 4:124, 4:173, 5:9, 5:69, 6:127, 7:42-43, 9:120, 10:4, 10:9, 11:11, 14:23, 13:29, 14:23, 16:32, 17:9, 18:2, 18:30-31, 18:107, 19:60, 20:75, 20:112, 21:94, 22:14, 22:23, 22:50, 22:56, 25:70-71, 28:67, 28:80, 29:7, 29:9, 29:58, 30:15, 30:44-45, 31:8, 32:17, 32:19, 38:31, 34:4, 34:37, 35:7, 37:60-61, 39:74, 40:30, 41:81, 42:22-23, 43:72, 45:30, 46:40, 47:2, 47:4, 47:12, 48:29, 52:19, 56:24, 64:9, 77:43, 75:11, 84:25, 85:11, 95:6, 99:7, p 846-7 16:97, 18:88, 19:96, 24:55). Each person has individual responsibility for work (p 849 2:134 …10:41).
E. CONFLICT, qitaal
Human conflict is as old as human history. The earliest recorded conflict was one between two sons of Adam and it ended tragically in homicide (P 949 5:27-31). Conflicts can be armed or non-armed. Weapons were among the first tools that humans discovered. Throughout history technological discoveries have always been of double use: military and industry. Conflicts have their bad destructive consequences but they also can lead to some positive changes. Conflict or its potential acts as a deterrent. Mutual deterrence, tadafu’u, helps maintain balance between and among communities. After a conflict new relations are established and development can occur until a new conflict arises. Many technological developments were a result of supreme efforts to discover weapons needed to win in conflicts. There are three basic causes of conflict: (a) misunderstanding (b) insecurity (c) greed and competition for limited resources. Conflict in a way is part of the survival instinct that all humans have. Jihad is part of ist’imar. It is undertaken for the sole purpose of defeating the taghoot and establishing freedom of religion so that the human potential can be unleashed. Islam forbade all other reasons for fighting because armed conflict is anti-civilization; it destroys life and property.
3.5.2 QUR’ANIC ACCOUNT OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
A. GENERAL CONCEPTS
The Qur'an is in essence not a book of history. It however reveals to us some aspects of past communities mainly to teach us moral lessons. The Qur'anic account covers both the pre-historic and historic eras. The origin of all civilizations is one (p 156-7 2:213, 10:19, 21:92, 23:52, 43:33). Each has a fixed life-span (p 151 7:34, 7:135, 10:49, 15:5, 18:59, 23:43). The Qur’an tells us the history of previous communities as a lesson (p 152 11:100). It also urges us to study them as a lesson (p 154 12:109, 16:36, 20:51-52, 20:128, 25:40, 28:43, 32:26, 34:18). Each civilization was distinct (p 152 5:48, 10:19, 11:118, 16:92-93, 22:34, 22:67, 42:8). Prophets were sent to each community (p 152 2:213, 4:41, 6:42, 7:94, 7:101, 10:13, 10:47, 12:109, 13:30, 16:36, 16:63, 16:84, 16:89, 23:44, 26:208, 28:59, 34:34, 35:24, 36:13, 43:23, 40:5). The communities succeeded one another (p 153 9:39, 6:6, 6:133, 7:12, 7:16, 9:39, 11:57, 21:11, 23:31, 23:42, 24:55, 28:45, 47:38, 56:61, 70:41, 86:28, ?70:28). Many of them were luxurious (p 153-4 11:116, 17:16, 27:58, 34:34, 43:23). Many rejected the prophets (p 154 7:96, 7:101, 16:36, 23:44, 27:83, 29:18, 40:5), committed transgressions, dhulm (p 154 4:75, 10:13, 11:102, 11:116, 18:59, 21:11, 22:45, 22:48, 28:59, 29:31). The end was bad (p 155 12:109, 16:36). They were punished (p 155 7:28, 7:38, 7:94, 11:48, 11:102, 16:63, 17:58, 27:83, 40:5, 41:25, 45:28, 46:18, 65:8) or were destroyed (p 155 6:6, 6:42, 6:131, 7:4, 7:96-98, 10:13, 11:117, 15:4, 17:17, 17:58, 18:59, 19:74, 19:98, 20:128, 21:6, 21:95, 22:48, 23:44, 26:208, 28:43, 28:58-59, 28:78, 29:31, 29:34, 32:26, 36:31, 38:3, 46:27, 47:13, 50:56).
B. THE RIGHTEOUS
Adam and Hawa were the first human to start a community. We learn from the Qur’an that when he was created a lot of resources of the earth such as plants and animals were already in place. The first human civilization was started with the Prophet Adam. He and his wife Hawa had many children to whom they bequeathed this first human civilization. It had its good and bad aspects. One of the bad experiences was the fratricide due to jealousy that the Qur’an recounted for us. We know from the Qur'anic account about the food and dress of Adam and his wife. The story of Adam is not in pre-history because it is written down. We thus have a paradoxical result that pre-history was not the start of human civilization. The first human civilization established by Adam and Hawa had all the ingredients of a modern civilization. There was disobedience and transgression from Allah’s command when they ate from the forbidden tree (p. 40 2;35-36, 4;1, 7:19-23, 20;121, 20:123). Adam was however a prophet and repented. He was forgiven and was allowed to start the first human family. Jealousy and violence occurred in the first family when one son of Adam killed his brother. Since the time of Adam, many civilizations and communities have arisen and fallen. The rise and fall follow defined laws called sunan Allah. When people choose the correct approaches they become strong and predominant. Once strong they change their condition and start weakening and eventually collapse.
People of the cave: The Qur’an tells us the story of the companions of the cave, ashaab al kahaf (p. 947 18:9-26) who were righteous youths who escaped from an evil society
Sabeans are an ancient religious community in the Arabian Peninsula whose remnants are still found in modern Iraq. The Qur'an mentioned them among believers (p. 659 5:69). We know little about their material civilization
C. THE TRANSGRESSORS
The people of Ibrahim, qawm Ibrahim, were described in the Qur’an (p. 62 6:75-83, 21:51-70, 26:69-82, 29:16-25, 37:83-99, 43:26-28). They made statutes for worship. They lived under a despotic ruler who had no respect for human life. The people of Babel were engaged in teaching sorcery, ta’aliim al sihr (2:102). We know little about the people of Egypt. The Qur’an described the actions of Pharaoh in Egypt in great detail but gave relatively less information about the Egyptian civilization and society. The society was divided between slaves and nobles; for a long time the Israelities were the slaving class. The people had been cowered into submission to the Pharaoh. There were however believing men and women among the Egyptians and the Israelis just as there were evil people among both groups; Qarun was a degenerate Israili while Haman was an evil Egyptian. The wife of Pharaoh was herself a believer. The Qur’an tells the story of the people of the trenches, ashaab al ukhduud, who were believers burned by fire under the cruel king Jewish Dhu Nuwaas in Yaman (p. 947 85:4-10). They were persecuted for their beliefs. The people of the elephant, ashaab al fiil (p. 947 105:1-5) were a strong military power in Yaman and they tried to destroy the Kaaba in the year of the prophet’s birth. The Qur’an tells us about civilizations that were evil and were finally destroyed, the people of Thamud (p. 262-263 7:73, 9:70, 11:61, 11:68, 11:95, 14:9, 17:59, 22:42, 25:38, 26:141, 27:45, 29:38, 38:13, 40:31, 41:13, 41:17, 50:12, 51:43, 53:51, 54:23, 53:51, 54:23, 69:4-5, 85:18, 91:11), the people of Rass (p. 500 25:38, 50:12), and the people of ‘Aad (p. p769 7:65, 7:74, 9;70, 11;50, 11;59-60, 14:9, 22:42, 25:38, 26:123, 29:38, 38:12, 40:31, 41:13, 41:15, 46:21, 50:13, 41:41, 53:50, 54:18, 89:4, 69:6, 89:6).
D. PEOPLE OF THE BOOK
JEWS
Major historical events: Hebrews, the ancestors of Israelities and Jews, were nomadic herders, traveling artisans and merchants wandering between the Nile and the Euphrates. Ibrahim, a Canaanite, gave birth to Ishaq who in turn gave birth to Ya'aqub. Yaqub had 12 sons each of whom led a tribe. The drought forced the tribes from their homeland in Canaan to Egypt, hijrat al yahuud ila misr (p 1354 12:93, 12:99-100). They were enslaved in Egypt and suffered a lot in Egypt, balaau bani Israil fi masr (p. 1337 2:49, 7:141, 14:6). The Pharaohs oppressed them, idhtihaadi al fara’inat lahum (p. 1339-1340 2;49, 14:6, 26:52-53, 28:4). As a result of their demographic expansion of the Jewish population, the pharaohs were afraid and started a policy of systematic genocide to control the Jewish population. Male newborns were killed while females who were thought not to be a military threat were spared. They were saved from the pharaoh’s cruelty, najaat min fir’aun (p. 1352 2:49-50, 20:80, 2;47, 2;49-60) when Musa led the Jews out of Egypt what is called the exodus, khuruuj al yahuud min misr (p. 1345 7:138-139, 20:77-80, 26:52-66). They wandered in the Sinai desert for a long time. Allah showed them a lot of mercy during this period of wandering in the desert but they repeatedly disobeyed. They were fed manna and salwa, food directly from heaven (p 1347 2:57) but they asked Allah to give them a varied diet, talab tanwii’u al ta’aam (p 1347 2:61) whereupon Allah humiliated them by cutting off the food supply and ordering them to farm. They were ordered to slaughter a cow, al amr bi dhabahi al baqara (p 1341 2:67-72) but they rebelliously presented a succession of excuses until they finally slaughtered he cow most reluctantly. Many orders were given to them but they disobeyed most of the time (p. 1341 2;40-48, 2:63, 2:67, 2:122-123, 7:161). Some foods were forbidden for them, tahriim ba’adh al at’imat (p 1342 4:160, 6:146, 16:118). They made persistently unreasonable demands from Musa. They demanded that they see Allah directly, ruuyat al laah jahratan (p 1347 2;108, 4:153) but they were overcome by the experience. Allah provided them with 12 fountains of water when they asked for water, talab al maau (p. 1347 2;60, 7:160).. After the death of Musa, Taalut led them to the promised land of Canaan, dukhuul al ardh al muqaddasat (p. 1345 2:58, 7:161). They became farmers and herders. They were a rebellious people and gave a lot of trouble to King Taaluut, al yahuud wa al malik taaluut (p. 1354 2:246-251). After a period of confusion, Saul became the first king. Daud who united the Israelites to defeat the Canaanites and establish the city of Jerusalem succeeded him. Sulaiman famous for his wisdom succeeded Daud. On the death of Sulaiman 2 kingdoms were established: Israil in the north and Judea in the south. Fighting between the 2 kingdoms weakened them. Many prophets arose among the Israelites but the people rejected them. The Israelities were attacked by more powerful neighbors and were often defeated in battle, haziimat al yahuud fi al huruub (p 1354 3:111-112). By 722 BC the Kingdom of Israil in the north disappeared. By 586BC the Judeans were forced into slavery in Babylon where they stayed for 70 years. On return they rebuilt Jerusalem.
Allah’s bounties on the Jews: Allah gave many bounties to the Jews, ni’am al llaah ‘ala al yahuud (p. 1352-3 2;40, 2:47, 2;49-60, 2:63-64, 2;122, 2;211, 5:20, 7:137, 7:140-141, 7:160, 10:93, 14:6, 20;80-81, 28:5-6, 44:30-33, 45:16-19). Allah gave superiority to Jews, tafdhiil al yahuud (p. 1342-3 7:140, 44:30-32, 45:16). Among the bounties given to them that put them in a position of superiority were: faith, imaan (p. 1343 32:23-24), gratitude, shukr (p. 1343 2:47, 2;122), patience, and sabr (p. 1343 7:137, 32:23-24). They were however always rebelling against Allah. Despite their rebellion, Allah was always willing to accept their repentance, taubat al yahuud ba’ada al ma’asiyat (p. 1344 2:54, 7:155-156).
Negative history of the Jews: The Qur’an has mentioned few positive things about the Jews. Some of them were believers while others were not (p 1345 18:32-43, p 1337 2:62, 5:69). Some of their scholars testified that the Qur’an was truthful (p. 1347 13:43, 26:197, 46:10). Most of the Qur’anic account of Jews is about their rebellion, transgression, and corruption which justified Allah’s punishment for them, istihqaaq ‘adhaab al Llaah (p. 1339 3:112). Allah had taken a covenant from the Jews, akhadh al llahh al miithaaq min al yahuud (p. 1337 2:63, 2:83, 2:84, 2:93, 3:187, 4:154, 5:12, 5:70, 7:169) but throughout their history they repeatedly broke the convenant and other agreements, naqdh al yahuud al ‘uhuud (p. 1353 2:63-64, 2:83-85, 2:93, 2:100-101, 3:187, 4:155, 5:12-13, 5:70, 7:169). Their religious leaders were corrupt, ahbaar fasaqat (p. 1337 9:34).
Transgressions against Allah: transgression against what Allah forbade, i’itidaau hurumaat al llaah (p 1340 2:65-66), associating Allah with avarice, nisbat al bukhul ila al llaah (p 1340 5:64), associating Allah with poverty, nisbat al faqr ila al llaah (p. 1340 3:181), associating Allah with a child, nisbat al walad ila al llaah (p. 1340 5:18, 9:30), denial of Allah’s bounties on them, kufr al ni’am (p. 1350 2:57, 2:59-61, 2:211, 7:162)
False creed: Unbelief, kufr al yahuud (p. 1350 2:88-991, 3:112, 4:155-156, 5:41, 5:64, 5:68), worshipping idols, talab ibadat al asnaam (p. 1347 7;138-139, 20:90-91), worship of the golden calf, ibadat al ‘ijil (p. 1348 2:54, 7:148, 20:87-89),
Fabrications: Jews made fabrications about fabrications about Allah, iftiraau ‘ala al llaah (p 1340 3:183, 4:153, 9:31), Maryam (p. 1340 4:156, 19:37), Haaruut and Maaruut (p 1340 2:102), corruption of the taurat, takhrif al tawrat (p 1342 2:75, 2:146, 3:187, 4:46, 5:13, 5:41, 5:44, 6:91)
False allegations: Jews made the following false allegations: prophets were Jews, tahwiid al anbiyaa (p. 1346 2;140, 3:67), paradise is only for Jews (p 1346 2:94, 2:111-112), escape of Jews from hell, najaat min al naar (p. 1346 2:80-81, 3:23-24), guidance is for Jews only (p. 1346 2:135-137), Allah’s love for Jews (p 1346 5:18), Jews are the allies of Allah, wilayat al allah (p 1346 62:6)
Financial corruption: taking people’s wealth by falsehood (p. 1340 4:161), dealing in interest, akhadh al riba (p. 1338 4:161)
Evil Character: transgression, dhulm (p. 1347 2:51, 2:54, 2:59, 2:92, 2:95, 4:160, 4:153, 7:147, 7:15, 62:7), arrogance, ghuruur (p. 1349 2;120, 2;135, 3;24, 5:18), hardness of hearts, qaswat al quluub (p. 1349 2:74, 2:88, 4:155, 5:13), stubbornness, mu’anadat al yahuud (p. 1351 2:59, 2:61, 2:67-75, 2:92, 2:118, 5:24, 7:162), foolhardiness, safah (p 1346 2;130, 2:143), following base desires, itiibau al hiwa (p 1337 2:87, 2:145, 5:49, 5:70), hastening towards evil, musra’at ila al ithm (p. 1350 5:41, 5:62-63), enmity, ‘adawat (p. 1348 2:61, 2:65, 3:112, 4:154, 5:64, 5:82), enmity for angels, ‘adawat al malaikat (p. 1348 2:97-98), jealousy, hasad (p. 1338 2;105, 2;109, 4:51-54), treachery, khiyanat (p 1338 5:13), lying, kadhb (p. 1338 3:75, 3:78, 3:93-94, 3:183, 4:50-51, 5:41-42), avarice, bukhl (p. 1342 2:58-59, 6:146, 7:161-166), cowardice, jubn (p. 1344 3:110-111, 5:20-25, 59:2, 59:11-14), and materialism (p. 1345 2:94-96, 62:6-8), and materialistic dealings, mu’amalat maadiyyat (p. 1351 3:75-76). The Qur’an gave examples of evil Jewish behavior in the story of the companions of the garden, ashaab al jannat (p. 1339 68:17-32) and the companions of the village, ashaab al qariyat (p. 1339 36:13-29).
Evil actions: murawaghat (p 1339 2:67-73), making fun of believers, istihizaau al mu’uminiin (p. 1339 2:14-15), killing of prophets, qatl al anbiya ( ), hiding the truth, kitmaan al haqq (p. 1349 2:42, 2:140, 2:146, 3:187). They took negative positions regarding prophets, mawaqif salbiyyat li al anbiya (p. 1351 2:87, 2:140, 5:70). They rejected the prophet Muhammad, mawqifu al yahuud min Muhammad (p 1352 2:89, 2:101, 2:146-147, 61:6-7, 33:69, 61:5). They also rejected Isa, mawqif al yahuud min Isa (p. 1351 4:156-157).
Corrupting others: spread evil, ifsaad al yahuud (p. 1340 2:60, 5:63, 7:142, 17:4-7), starting wars, ish’aal al huruub (p 1339 5:64), stopping others from Allah’s path, sadd sabiil al llaah (p. 1347 3:99, 4:160, 9:34),
Punishments for Jews: As a result of their rebellion Jews have been punished by Allah, ‘uquubat al yahuud umuuman (p. 1348-9 2:55, Jews have been expelled and scattered many times in their history, tashriid al yahuud (p. 1342 7:167-168). Allah held a mountain above them and threatened to let it fall on them if they disobeyed, rafi’u al tuur fawqahum (p. 1346 2:63, 2:93, 4:154, 7:177). He humiliated them, dharab al dhillat ala al yahuud (p. 1347 2:61, 3;112, 7:152). He also made them paupers, dharab al maskanat ala al yahuud ( ). Allah punished them with lightning thunder, usquubat al yahuud bi al saa’iqat (p. 1349 2:55, 4:153). Their wandering in the Sinai desert for years was a form of punishment for their disobedience, uqubat al yahuud bi al tiih fi al sahara (p. 1349 5:26). Allah turned them into monkeys and pigs (p. 1349 2:65, 5:60, 7:160).
CHRISTIANS
Christians are a world-wide religious community that claims to follow the prophet Isa (PBUH). They are considered among the people of the book but they have differences with Jews (p 1230 2:113). They have a defects in the creed, fasaad al ‘aqiidat (p 1221-1222 3:59-61, 3:64, 3:79-80, 5:17-18, 5:72-76, 5:116-117, 9:30-31). They did not follow the gospels, injiil, properly (p 1221 5:47, 5:66, 5:68). They made fabrications about prophets, iftiraau ‘ala al anbiyaa (p. 1220 4:140). They have arrogance, ghuruur (p 1222 2;120;120, 2:175). They have some soft spot for Muslims, mawaddat al Muslimiin (p 1222 5:82) when compared to Jews. Muslims are forbidden from taking Christians as allies, nahy muwalaat al nasaarah (p. 1222 5:51).
E. OTHERS
The Qur’an described the pre-Islamic Quraishi society as a trading community who depended on the summer trade to Syria and the winter trade to Yaman (p. 106:1-2). The Kingdom of Saba was described as a prosperous and strong society under a gentle ruler who consulted her people before making a major decision (p 949 27:22-44, 34:15-21).
3.5.4 THE LIFE OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD AS A MODEL
A. PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA
THE ARAB PEOPLE
Very little is known about the ancient Arabs (al Arab al baidat). The Qur’an gave us a glimpse of their life when it described the people of aad and thamud the ruins of whose civilization can still be seen today. The so called pure Arabs (al arab al ‘aribat) were the offspring of Ya’arub bin Yushjub bin Qahtan. Also called Qahtanian Arabs they originally lived in Yaman and migrated to other parts of the peninsula. The arabised arabs (al ‘arab al musta’arabat) were the progeny of Ismail son of Ibrahim (PBUH). Ibrahim had settled his family consisting of his infant son and his mother Hagir in Makka. Ismail married from the Jurhum tribe and the products of this union are the arabised arabs whose tribes spread out all over Arabia. Many other ethnic groups became Arabized when they entered Islam and adopted the Arabic language.
GOVERNMENT IN PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA:
Several types of government existed in the Arabian peninsula before Islam. In Yaman where agriculture allowed development of an advanced civilization, there were kings and centralized governments. The eastern part of the peninsula was in the Persian sphere of influence. Arabs living on the northern borders of the peninsula came under Byzantine influence and control. There was no strong central government in the Hejaz. The city of Makka established by Ibrahim and his son Ismail was an exception. Being a religious and trade center, it had a city government whose control changed hands often. The rulers of Makka were informally recognized as leaders of all Arabs because of the religious importance of the Kaaba.
THE RELIGION OF ARABS BEFORE ISLAM:
Ibrahim and Ismail had introduced monotheism in Makka and it spread to other parts of the peninsula. However, as always happens in periods of decline, the pure creed became corrupted later with the worship of idols. Soothsayers, fortune-tellers, and astrologers were believed. Despite this religious confusion, some vestiges of the Abrahamic faith persisted: respect for the kaaba, observation of the pilgrimage, the vigil at Arafat, and offering sacrifices. However these rites were still adulterated by superstitions. Christianity had entered the peninsula from the Byzantine empire to the north and the Abyssinia in the south. Arabs living on the borders of Persia practiced magianism (worship of the sun). Sabianism is an ancient religion that survived in parts of Iraq to the present day. Jews escaping Byzantine persecution settled in the peninsula and converted a few Arabs to their religion. Jews were generally not good missionaries of their religion because of their feeling of racial superiority over the Arabs.
PRE-ISLAMIC ECONOMIC LIFE
The economic life was very fragile since the peninsula had very few resources. Most Arabs were nomadic bedouins moving around the desert in search of water and pasture for their animals. A few settled in cities were traders. Few worked in industry. Hunger and poverty were the order of the day for most people. The Arabian peninsula is a barren land. Its people were not able to develop a sophisticated material civilization. They however compensated by developing a spirit of independence and self-reliance since their land was inaccessible to foreigners and invaders. The Arabian peninsula was however not completely isolated. Trade routes linking Yaman in the south with Syria in the North as well as east-west routes traversed its desolate landscape and maintained a form of contact with the outside world.
PRE-ISLAMIC SOCIAL LIFE:
Arab society was characterized by ethnocentricity with the tribe and clan being the center of identity. Tribal pride was very strong and was a frequent cause of war. Inter-tribal wars were common often for trivial reasons. Sexual promiscuity was common. Baby girls were often killed because they were thought a burden and could not contribute to military or economic efforts. Despite the difficult material conditions, pre-Islamic Arabs had some noble qualities of hospitality, karam, coming to the rescue of others, najdat, keeping convenants ( ), a sense of honor ( ), hatred of injustice ( ), strong will ( ), courage ( ), patience and perseverence ( ). These qualities made them suitable raw material for building an Islamic civilisation. It is for that reason the Omar Ibn al Khattab in his testament before his death said: uswiikum bi al a’araan khayran fa innahum aslu al ‘aran wa maadat al islam (treat the Bedouins well because they are the origin of the Arabs and are the raw material of Islam.
B. MUHAMMAD AS A HUMAN MESSENGER
SOURCES OF SIIRAT
The account of the most important dated events in the life of the prophet has been preserved for us in the books of hadith and seerat (KS 477: Bukhari K63 B28 & B45; Bukhari K64 B85, Bukhari K66 B1, Muslim K43 H113-123, Tirmidhi K46 B4, Muwatta K49 H1, Ibn Saad J1 Q1 p126 & p151, Ibn Saad J2 Q2 p81-83, Ibn Saad J3 Q1 p.3, Ahmad 1:228, 230, 236, 249, 266, 277, 279, 290, 294, 296, 312, 363, 370, 371; Ahmad 3:130, 157; Tayalisi H 1477, 2751, Hisham p 415). The Qur’an is also a valuable source of 100% authentic material on siirat.
LINEAGE AND BIRTH OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD (PBUH):
The prophet was from the hashimite family. His great grand-father was Abdul al Muttalib was of the great chieftains of Makka. Abdullah, the son of Abdul al Muttalib was married to Amina bint Wahab and produced the prophet (PBUH). In the month of Muharram 50 or 55 days before the birth of the prophet, the Abyssinian ruler of Yaman, Abraha, had invaded Makka with a large army consisting of elephants. He wanted to destroy the kaaba but Allah protected His house and Abraha and his army were defeated. The prophet was born an orphan; his father had died 2 months before while in Madina. Abdullah left very little wealth for his son: 5 camels, a small number of goats, and a servant.
MUHAMMAD BEFORE PROPHETHOOD:
The prophet was born in Makka in the year 571 CE. He was sent to be nursed in the desert as was the custom among Arabs who wanted their children to taste the rough life of the desert and thus grow up strong like the bedouins. At the age of 5 he was returned to Makka. His mother soon passed away. His grandfather Abdul Mutalib passed away when the prophet was 8 years and his uncle Abu Talib took care of him. Muhammad participated actively in the life of his community. As a teenager he was present in the sacrilegious wars, harb al fujuur, between Quraish and Banu Kinana. He also attended the pact for peace and justice, hilf al fudhool, that followed the fighting. He worked as a shep-herd for bani Sa’ad. At the age of 25 he went to Syria to trade on behalf of a rich widow, Khadijah bint Khuwailad. She was so impressed by his character and honesty that she married him. She bore him 2 boys and 4 girls. The boys died in their infancy. Muhammad was loved and trusted by all people in Makka. He used to meditate and think deeply about all he saw around him. He kept away from idolatry, superstition, and the life of sin then common among youths in Makka. He had good manners, was modest, and truthful.
C. THE MAKKAN PERIOD
QUR’ANIC REVELATION
The revelation of the Qur’an started while the prophet was meditating in the cave of Hira. There was a pause in the revelation then it resumed. With the revelation of surat al mudathir, the mission of Muhammad entered into its public phase. He called the Quraish to the new religion.
DAWA IN MAKKA
The Makkan period of the mission lasted 13 years. The prophet called people to Islam in secret. The dawa was public from the 4th to the 10th year. From the 10th year onwards the dawa was proclaimed outside Makka, a situation that continued until the migration to Madina. The earliest converts in Makka were from the prophet’s family or his closest associates. He used to meet and teach them in secret. Even in its secret phase the Quraish became nervous about the new religion. They rightly concluded that a religion that calls for monotheism would upset the social and religious structure then prevalent in Makka and that many would lose their privileges. The Quraish adopted various strategies to confront the new movement. They tried to convince Abu Talib to stop his nephew from attacking the old Makkan religion to no avail. They discouraged Arab pilgrims coming to Makka from listening to Muhammad. They then resorted to propaganda tactics of ridiculing the prophet and his message by calling him mad or possessed by a jinn. They made many false allegation against him and Muslims. When all was to no avail they tried to make Muhammad compromise and soften some of his teachings which he refused. When all these approaches failed to check the spread of Islam they resorted to open persecution.
TRIALS AND TRIBULATIONS IN MAKKA:
When persecution became more severe the Prophet ordered some of his companions to migrate to Abyssinia. A Quraish delegation sent to bring them back was rebuffed by the Negus of Abyssinia. Meanwhile the Muslim ranks were strengthened by the conversion of Hamza Ibn Abd al Muttalib and Omar Ibn al Khattab, recognised strong leaders among the Quraish. The Quraish resorted to other measures like trying to negotiate the prophet out of his mission or persuading his uncle Abu Talib to give up protecting him. When all this failed, a social and economic boycott was declared against banu Hashim, the family of the prophet. In exasperation the leaders of Quraish decided to eliminate the prophet physically. The prophet also experienced personal tragedy in the 10th year of prophet-hood due to the death of his uncle Abu Talib and his wife Khadijat. The Muslims were able to withstand all persecution because of their firm belief in Allah, their love for their leader Muhammad (PBUH), glad tiding of paradise, the continuous revelation of the Qur’an that reassured them.
SPREAD OF DAWA BEYOND MAKKA:
In the month of shawal of the 10th year of prophet-hood, the prophet went on a dawa mission to Taif where he found no response but further persecution. On his return to Makka he visited several Arab tribes that had come for pilgrimage and called them to Islam. Some responded to the call. In the 11th year of prophethood the prophet contacted pilgrims from Madina who readily accepted his message. The following year more Madanese came and made the first ‘Aqabat pledge. The prophet sent Mus’ab bin Omayr with them to Madina to teach and call others to Islam. The next year over 70 Madanese came and the second ‘Aqabat pledge was concluded. The ‘Aqabat pledges were to obey, follow and protect the prophet.
HIJRA AS A STRATEGY FOR CIVILISATIONAL CHANGE:
After the second ‘Aqabat pledge the prophet gave leave to his companions to migrate to Madina. They migrated secretly while the Quraish did all they could to stop or hinder them. The Quraish became very anxious at the turn of events. They met in their assembly and made a decision to kill the prophet. He managed to escape and with his companion Abu Bakr travelled to Madina in difficult circumstances. They arrived at Quba on the outskirts of Madina on 8th Rabiu al awal of the 14th year of prophet-hood. After a few days he reached Madina on 12th Rabiu al awal and set about organizing the new community that would become the first Islamic state.
D. THE MADINAN PERIOD
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MADINAN STATE: REALISATION OF THE VISION:
The prophet started by building a mosque. He started creating brotherhood between the migrants from Makka, muhajirun, and the helpers in Madina, ansar. He promulgated the Madina charter or constitution that defined the relations among all groups in the city: immigrants, helpers, and the Jews , and the polytheists. A treaty of co-operation and non-aggression was concluded with the jews. Migration to Madina did not bring respite and peace to the prophet and the Muslims. They had to go to battle to defend their religion. The first decisive battle in the history of Islam was that of Badr in which a Muslim army of about 300 poorly equipped troops defeated a Quraishi army of about 1300. The next major military encounter was the battle of Uhud in which Muslims initially had an advantage but disobeyed the orders of the commander with the result that 70 of them were killed. The third major military action was the invasion of Madina by a Quraishi-led coalition of Arab tribes in the 5th year of hijra. The Muslims dug a trench around the city to keep away the invaders. Soon the invaders disagreed among themselves and the bad weather made it difficult to maintain their siege.
ISLAMISATION OF THE WHOLE ARABIAN PENINSULA:
In 6 AH the prophet and his companions traveled to Makka peacefully for the purpose of umrat. The Quraish refused him to enter the city. After prolonged negotiations, the Hudaybiyat treaty was signed by which Muslims would be allowed to come to Makka the next year. This treaty was a land-mark since for the first time Islam was given political recognition. After the treaty Islam spread very rapidly in the peninsula. On his return from hudaybiyyat the prophet sent messengers to Abyssinia, Egypt, Persia, Byzantine, Bahrain, Yamamah, Syria (Ghassani kings), and Yaman calling their rulers and people to Islam. With the southern border made secure as a result of the Hudaybiyyat treaty the prophet turned his attention to the north. Khaibar was conquered in Muharram 7 AH to eliminate any security threats from the northern border. The mu’tat expedition of 8 AH was a new phase in the growth of the nascent state; it was the first challenge to the superpowers that surrounded the peninsula: Persia and Byzantine. The prophet marched on Makka in the year 8 AH with a large army of 10,000 troops. The city was conquered peacefully. The kaaba was cleansed of all idols and Makka regained its true status as the religious capital of Islam. With the conquest of Makka virtually the whole Arabian peninsula accepted Islam. Islam had become an unstoppable momentum.
CHALLENGING THE SUPERPOWERS:
There were two superpowers in West Asia at that time: Byzantine, al rum, and Persia, furs. The next phase of the Islamic mission was to challenge them and eventually break their hegemony over the people of West Asia and North Africa thus creating conditions of freedom of choice of religion. Abu Bakr led the pilgrimage in the year 9 AH. Soon people embraced Islam in large numbers. Many tribal delegations came to see the prophet in Madina and swear their allegiance. In the year 9 AH a large army was dispatched to conquer Tabuk to the north in territory controlled by the Byzantines. This was in response to the mobilization, by the Byzantines and their Ghassan Arab allies, of a big army for a pre-emptive strike against Muslims before the latter grew stronger. Once in Tabuk the Byzantine armies did not have the stomach to fight, they scattered in their territory and a treaty was concluded by which tribute would be paid to Muslims..
THE END OF THE PROPHET’S EARTHLY LIFE:
In the year 10 AH the prophet performed the farewell pilgrimage. While at Arafat he delivered a famous speech called the farewell address, khutbat al widai, in which he enunciated many cardinal principals of Islam. On return to Madina the prophet fell ill and soon passed away. The prophet had a dual responsibility. The mission of prophethood and messenger ended with the death of the prophet. However his other responsibility as political leader of the community continued. It was therefore necessary to appoint a khalifat.
E. LESSONS
SUCCESS:
Muhammad was the only messenger who witnessed complete success of his mission in his lifetime. By the time he died Islam was well established in the peninsula and was on its way to spreading outside the peninsula.
PERSONAL CONDUCT
Forgiving: The prophet forgave the bedouin who had wanted to kill him (KS 478: Bukhari K56 B84 and B87; Ahmad 3:311, 364, 390; Waqidi p.99, 356. The prophet did not kill the woman who tried to kill him by poisoning (KS 479: Bukhari K51 B28; AbuDaud K38 B6; Waqidi p 280; Ibn Saad J2 Q1 p.78).
Humble and austere life: riding a donkey (KS 481). He could spend a month or two eating nothing in his house except dates and water (KS 481). He wore rough-woven clothes (KS 481). His furniture was simple (KS 481)
THE FAMILY:
The prophet was kind and considerate towards his women folk. He did domestic work (KS 482)
THE COMMUNITY:
The prophet was an example in taking care of community welfare. As head of state he said that whoever left a debt he (the prophet) would be responsible for it and whoever left any property it is for the inheritors (KS 479 Bukhari K65 S33 B1, Bukhari K69 B15, Bukhari K85 B4 & B15 & B25, Muslim K23 H14-H18, AbuDaud K22 B9, Ibn Majah K23 B9, Darimi K18 B54, Ahmad 2:287 & 290 & 318 & 334 & 356 & 450 & 453 & 464 & 527 3:215 & 296 & 310 & 337 & 371, 4: 131 & 133, 6:74 & 151, Tayalisi H1150 & 2338 & 2524.
THE WHOLE WORLD
The prophet was sent to all people (KS 488) to bring glad tidings. He is rated as the most influential person in history
THE ENVIRONMENT:
The prophet taught cleanliness of the environment
ANIMAL RIGHTS:
The prophet taught kindness to animals
HUMAN RIGHTS:
The prophet taught and practiced the essential equality of all humans. He raised the status of women. He also started a process of emancipating slaves.
3.5.4 THE ISLAMIC STATE, al dawlat al Islamiyat/dar al Islam
A. THE RIGHTLY-GUIDED KHILAFAT
THE CONCEPT OF GOLDEN ERA
The golden era of the Islamic civilisation was the era of the prophet and the 4 rightly-guided khulafat. After that there were tribal dynasties. Western scholars talk of a different golden era of Islam in the Abbasid period when despite seeds of internal decay Muslims were able to make considerable achievements in science, technology, and scholarship. The period 622-800 CE is considered a period of spread and opening new lands to Islam, futuuhaat. The period 850-1250 CE was the golden era of Islam in arts, sciences, and trade. Muslims found and translated ancient Greek knowledge. They developed it further based on their own research. In 1258 CE the Mongols invaded, sacked Baghdad and destroyed all the books. They killed the khalifah. General decline set in following the Mongol destruction.
THE 4 RIGHTLY-GUIDEDE KHULAFA
Abubakar 11H -
Omar Ibn al Khattab 13H-
Othman bin Affan 23H-
Ali Ibn Abi Talib 35-40H
POLITICAL PROBLEMS
The civil war between followers of Ali and Muawiyah mainifested serious problems in the state. It was later to give rise to the Sunni-Shia divide that still exists today
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MUSLIM EMPIRE
Islam spread very rapidly following the hegira. By the passing away of the prophet the whole Arabian peninsula was under the Islamic state. In the reigns of Abubakr and Omar the opening, fath, of Iraq, Palestine, and Syria was completed. Egypt was opened in 641 and Muslim armies moved westwards. By 670 CE ‘Uqba bin Nafi had controlled modern-day Libya and Tunisia. Thirteen years later Tariq Ibn Ziyad reached the Atlantic and in 711 CE he crossed into Spain. Muslim advance into the rest of Western Europe was stopped in 732 CE at the battle of Poitiers in France. Southward advance of the Muslim armies did not go beyond Nubia which lies south of Egypt. No major geographical expansion occurred until the time of the Osmanli.
B. DYNASTIES IN THE MUSLIM HEARTLAND OF WEST ASIA and NORTH AFRICA
OMAYYAD ERA (661 – 750 CE)
The first dynasty were the omayyads who rulesd from Damascus in the period 41-132H. When they were overthrown by the abassids in the east, they continued ruling in Andalusia 138-422H. The most remembered omayyad rulers were: Muawiyah 41-60H, Abd al Malik 65-86H, Hisham 101-125H, Omar Ibn Abd al Aziz, and Yazid III. Omar Ibn Abd al Aziz is sometimes counted among the 4 rightly guided khulafat because of his piety. Yaziid was the last omayyad ruler and was pious. The list of all omayyad rulers was as follows: 42 H/ 661 CE Muawiyah I b Abi Saufyan, 60 H / 680 CE Yazid I, 64 H / 683 CE Muawiyah II, 64 H / 684 CE Marwan I b al Hakam, 65 H / 685 CE Abd al Malik, 86 H / 705 CE al Walid I, 96 H / 715 CE Sulaiman, 99 H / 717 CE Umar b Abd al Aziz, 101 H / 720 CE Yazid II, 105 H / 724 CE Hisham, 125 H / 743 CE al Walid II, 126 H / 744 CE Yazid III, 126 H / 744 CE Ibrahim, 127-32 H / 744 - 50 CE Marwan II.
Muawiyah was declared khalifah after the martyrdom of Ali. Muawiya had been governor of Syria before that for twenty years and had fought the The three greatest caliphs of the dynasty, Muawiya, Abd al Malik, and Hisham, were efficient rulers. The omayyads adopted administrative practices of the Greeks, Persians,and Sassanids. The state expanded westwards from Egypt; in 91 H / 710 CE Muslim troops entered Spain through Gibraltar, crossed the Pyrenees and threatened France. Troops also moved into central Asia and Eastern Persia. Muhammad Ibn Wasim penetrated through Makran into Sind, in present-day Pakistan. The state experienced problems and had many opponents: the scholars, the shia, and disaffected people in the conquered territories. The Umayyads were in 132 H /750 CE overthrown by a revolution which began in Khurasan led by Abu Muslim. Umayads were massacred but one Hisham's grandson Abd-ar-Rahman escaped to North Africa and eventually founded in Spain a fresh line of Omayyads.
ABASSIDS (750 – 1258 CE)
The abassids ruled in two phases: before and after the Mongol invasion. They ruled from Baghdad in the period 132-656H and were over-thrown in the Mongol sacking of Baghdad 640-656H. After the Mongol sacking of Baghdad they continued ruling in Cairo 659-923H. The abassid dynasty came to an end with the Ottoman occupation of Egypt in 923H. It is said that the last abassid khalifat transferred authority to the Ottoman Sultan who thereafter styled himself a khalifat.
Powers behind the throne: The institution and position of the khalifat were respected and were a source of legitimacy. The khalifat however had little power and was most of the time a mere figure-head. In the period 334-447 H the Buwaydis took control of Baghdad and reduced the khalifat to a figurehead ceremonial ruler. The Seljuks were bold Turkish horsemen who were Sunnites. They took over Baghdad in 1055 CE and Damascus in 1076 CE. When the Seljuks took over Baghdad in 447H, they left the khalifah as a fugurehead. The last khalifat in Baghdad was murdered by Hulagu in 656 H. Abassid rule continued thenceforward from Cairo. The Mameluk rulers there sought legitimacy in having a figure-head khalifat as head of state.
Abassid khalihas in Baghdad 132 H - 656 H / 745 CE – 1258 CE were as follows: 132 CE /749 CE as Saffah, 136 CE /754 CE al Mansur, 158 CE /775 CE al Mahdi, 169 CE / 785 CE al Hadi, 170 CE /786 CE Harun ar Rashid, 193 CE /813 CE al Amin, 198 CE /813 CE al Mamun, 201-3 CE /817-19 CE Ibrahim b al Mahdi, 218 CE /833 CE al Mutasim, 227 CE /842 CE al Wathiq, 232 CE /847 CE al Mutawakkil, 247 CE /861 CE al Muntasir, 248 CE /862 CE al Mutazz, 255 CE /869 CE al Muhtadi, 256 CE /870 CE al Mutamid, 279 CE /892 CE al Mutadid, 289 CE /902 CE al Muktafi, 295 CE /908 CE al Muqtadir, 320 CE /932 CE al Qahir, 322 CE /934 CE ar Radi, 329 CE /940 CE al Muttaqi, 333 CE /944 CE al Mustakfi, 334 CE /946 CE al Muti, 363 CE /974 CE al Tai, 381 CE //991 CE al Qadir, 422 CE /1031 CE al Qaim, 467 CE /1075 CE al Muqtadi, 487 CE /1094 CE al Mustazhir, 512 CE /1118 CE al Mustarshid, 529 CE /1135 CE ar Rashid, 530/1136 CE al Muqtafi, 555/1160 CE al Mustanjid, 566/1170 CE al Mustadi, 575/1180 CE an Nasir, 622/1225 CE az Zahir, 623/1226 CE al Mustansir, 640-56 H/1242-58 CE al Mustasim
Abassid khalifahs in Cairo 659-923 H / 1261 – 1517 H were as follows: 659 H / 1261 CE al Mustansir, 660 H / 1261 CE al Hakim I, 701 H / 1302 CE al Mustakfi I, 740 H / 1340 CE al Wathiq I, 741 H / 1341 CE al Hakim II, 753 H / 1352 CE al Mutadid I, 763 H / 1362 CE al Mutawakkil I (first time), 779 H / 1377 CE al Mutasim (first time), 779 H / 1377 CE al Mutawakkil I (second time), 785 H / 1383 CE al Wathiq II, 788 H / 1386 CE al Mutasim (second time), 791 H / 1389 CE al Muwawakkil I (third time), 808 H / 1406 CE al Mustain, 816 H / 1414 CE al Mutadid II, 845 H / 1441 CE al Mustanjid, 855 H / 1451 CE al Qaim, 859 H / 1455 CE al Mustanjid, 884 H / 1479 CE al Mutawakkil II, 903 H / 1497 CE al Mustamsik (first time), 914 H / 1508 CE al Mutawakkil III (first time), 922 H / 1516 CE al Mustamsik (second time), 923 H / 1517 CE al Mutawakkil III (second time)
Nature of the Abassid Khilafat: The abassids cam e to power as a result of a revolution against the omayyads led by Abu Muslim. They transferred the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. The Abbasids were from the family of the Prophet's uncle al Abbas, of the Meccan clan of Hashim. This lineage gave them legitimacy in the eyes of many people. The Alids considered by the Shia as more legitimate challenged the early abassid rulers. To enhance their legitimacy, each new abassid klhalifah adopted a honorific title indicating divine support. They emphasized the theocratic nature of their dynasty.
Growth and decline of the abassid dynasty: In the later part of abassid rule, the political unity of the state began to disintegrate. Umayyads ruled in Spain with complete independence. North Africa was not effectively controlled. The Tulunids in Egypt enjoyed an autonomous status. The Samanids and Saffarids dynasties in Persia paid some tribute to Baghdad but were otherwise left alone. Abassid power was later confined to Iraq when the shi’i Fatimids took control of North Africa, Egypt and Syria. They proclaimed a rival khalifat in Cairo. The Daylami Buyids entered Baghdad in 334 H /945 CE and reduced the khalifat to a figure-head. The khalifat however kept some moral and spiritual influence. The Buwayds were replaced by the Turkish Seljuks. The Seljuk marched to Baghdad in 447 H / 1055 CE to rescue the khalifat from Buwaydi control. The Seljuk then became the real power behind the figure-head khalifat. They continued jihad in Anatolia until they controlled it. Seljuk power weakened in the 12th century but the khalifat never recovered its political power. The Seljuk were defeated in Anatolia by the Mongols in 641 H / 1243 CE and by 708 H / 1308 CE the Mongols were in control of Anatolia from which they were ousted by the rising Osmanli power. Mongols attacked and sacked Baghdad in 656 H /1258 CE and murdered the last khalifat of Baghdad. The Mamluk sultan of Egypt, Baybars, invited an uncle of the last Abbasid of Baghdad, to Cairo (659/1261) as a figure-head khalifat who legitimised Mameluk rule. The last caliph in Cairo, al Mutawakkil III, was carried off to Istanbul in 923 H / 1517 CE when the Osmanli conquered Egypt.
Regional dynasties: By the 9th century of hegira abassid central power had declined and regional dynasties emerged owing only nominal allegiance to the khalifat in Baghdad. The Tulinids ruled in Egypt 254-292H. The Fatimids ruled in Egypt, Syria, and North Africa 297-567H. The Ayyubids ousted the Fatimids in 1171 CE and thereafter ruled in Egypt, Syria, Dayabakir, and Yaman from 564 H to the end of the 9th century of hijra. The Mamelukes, former mercenary slaves recruited by the Ayyubids, ousted the Ayyubids from Egypt in 1250 CE. They ruled in both Egypt and Syria 648 H –922 H. The Mamelukes were strong rulers who protected Egypt from invaders. They stopped and destroyed the invading Mongol hordes at the famous battle-field of Ain Jalut in Palestine and thus saved the Muslim lands from complete destruction. They also expelled crusaders from Palestine. The best known Mameluke rulers were Sultan Baybars, 1260-1277 CE, and Sultan Kala’un, 1279-1290 CE. The Osmanli defeated the Mameluk in 922H but left them in charge of Egypt under the Osmanli control until they were ousted by Muhammad Ali in 1226H. The Zangids ruled in Syria and the peninsula, Jazira, in the period 521 H – 619 H. The Hamdanis ruled in Northern Syria and parts of Iran. The Ghaznavids ruled in Afghanistan. The Samanids ruled in Eastern Iran and Western Afghanistan.
Achievements of the abassids:
There was relatively little geographical expansion of the state in the abassid era with the exception of expeditions by al-Mamun and al-Mutasim into Anatolia against the Byzantines. The first three centuries of Abbasid rule witnessed flourishing in the fields of literature, theology, philosophy, and the natural sciences due to influences from Persia and Hellenistic world. Trade and commerce grew and expanded in Persia, Iraq, and Egypt. Trade links were established with central Asia, North Africa, India.
OSMANLI (1289 – 1922 CE)
The Osmanli dynasty controlled a wide area of the Muslim world for a long time 648 H – 1281 H. They called their state the Osmanli Devlet. The Osmanli Devlet replaced the Anatolian Seljukm state. When the abassid khilafat collapsed in Baghdad in 656 H / 1258 CE, the office of khalifat was transferred to the Great Seljuks (the real rulers in Baghdad under a nominal khalifat) and thereafter continued in the Anatolian Seljuks. Having no sons of his own, the last Anatolian Seljuk ruler, Alaeddin bin Faramuz, sent a drum and a white flag in 688 H / 1289 CE to Osman Ghazi, the founder of the Osmanli dynasty. The Osmanli devlet went through 4 stages: foundation 1289 – 1453 CE, expansion 1453 – 1606 CE, stagnation 1606 – 1699 CE, decline 1699 – 1876 CE, and final collapse 1876 – 1922 CE. There were attempts at rejuvenation during the decline but these were not successful. Sultan Abdulhamid was a far-sighted ruler who tried to rejuvenate the state but was overthrown in 1909 CE. The state ceased to exist on November 4, 1922. In the period of expansion, the Osmanli crossed into Europe in 758 H. In 857 H / 1453 CE they conquered Constatinolople from the Byzantines and renamed it Istanbul (corruption of the word Islam phool which means the city of Islam). With the fall of the city in 1453CE, the Ottomans were set on a path of expansion. They controlled North Africa, south-eastern Europe and they approached the gates of Vienna The conquest of Egypt and Syria was completed in 923H. Hungary was conquered in 932H. They became a strong sea-power in the Mediterranean. They built a multi-ethnic empire that left some local autonomy and was very tolerant of other religions.
The names of Osmanli Sultans were as follows: 1289 CE Osman Ghazi, 1326 CE Orhan Ghazi, 1326 CE Murad I, 1389 – 1402 CE Bayazid, 1412 CE Chelebi Muhammad, 1421 CE Murad II, 1451 CE Muhammad al Fatih, 1481 CE Bayazid II, 1512 CE Yavoz Selim, 1520 CE Kanuni Sultan Muhammad, 1566 CE Selim, 1574 CE Murad III, 1595 CE Mehmet, 1603 CE Ahmed I, 1618 CE Osman II, 1623 CE Murad IV, 1640 CE Ibrahim, 1648 CE Mehmet IV, 1687 CE Sulayman II, 1691 CE Ahmed II, 1695 CE Mustafa II, 1703 CE Ahmed III, 1730 CE Mahmud, 1757 CE Mustafa III, 1774 Abdulhamid I, 1789 CE Selim III, 1809 CE Mustafa IV, 1808 CE Mahmud II, 1839 CE Abdulmajid, 1861 CE Abdulaziz, 1876 CE Murad V, 1876 CE Abdulhamid II (Islamic restoration), 1909 CE Muhammad V Reshad, 1918-1922 CE Muhammad Wahiduddin.
THE SAFAWI IN PERSIA 909-1145H
The Safawi and the Ottoman engaged in constant war-fare for control of territory in West Asia. The struggle also had ideological overtones since the Safawi were shia and the Ottoman were sunni.
C. THE PERIPHERIES
MAGHREB
Murabituun 448-541H: These were followers of a puritan Morrocan preacher called Abdullah bin Yassin. They controlled territory in Morrocco and crossed over into the Iberian peninsula.
Muwahiduun 524-667H: This was a sufi movement that overthrew the Murabituun. They collapsed due to internal conflicts and external invasions.
Shurafa 917H – present: The royal house of Morocco today is from this line. They claim descent from the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).
SPAIN, ANDALUSIA
Small and often quarrelling dynasties, muluuk al tawaif, controlled various parts of Andalusia after the fall of the omayyad government. Because of their weaknesses they were gradually defeated by the rising catholic dynasties of Spain and Portugal. Muslims were eventually ousted from Spain in 1492 CE. Many fled to Morocco and other Muslim lands in North Africa. Those who stayed had to hide their faith but many were burned at the stake by the courts of inquisition. Many fled or were forced to migrate to Spanish colonies in America where they were known as the mudejars.
EAST AFRICAN ISLAMIC CIVILIZATIONS
Trading city-states: Arab traders sailed to East Africa even before Islam. Madagascar was settled by Javanese and Sumatra before 500 CE. After 900 CE in the great age of Islam more traders came to settle. The mingling of Arabs and Africans produced the Swahili people and Swahili civilization. In 1100 CE stone mosques started being built. The following trading city states developed: Mogadishu, Pate, Lamu, Gedi, Mombasa, Vumba, Kilwa, Zanzibar, and Pemba. There was prosperous trade in the Indian ocean in the period 1200-1500 CE between East Africa, Arabia, India, SE Asia, and China. In 910 CE the famous Muslim geographer, Al Mas’udi, sailed down the East African coast and had first hand knowledge of the Swahili trading civilization. Writing in Cairo in 943 CE described the thriving Indian Ocean trade. There were so many Muslim ships plying the Indian ocean trade that the ocean came to be called an Islamic lake. Swahili traders visited Malacca. Ambassadors from Malindi visited China with a gift of a live giraffe for the Chinese Emperor. The trade was made possible by the prevailing monsoon winds that blew from East Africa in one part of the year and towards East Africa in another part of the year.
Portuguese interlude: In 1488 CE, the Portuguese explorer Bartholomew Diaz reached the Cape of Good Hope and Vasco da Gama soon after reached East Africa on the way to India. The Muslims at Quelimane in Mozambique despised the primitive technology of the Portuguese ships. The period 1500-1600 CE was a time of ruin for the Muslim trading Swahili civilization. Portuguese piracy destroyed the Indian ocean trade. They plundered and burned cities. The Turkish captain Ali Bey came to East Africa twice in 1585 and 1588 CE to help the Muslims but it was too late. The Swahili Muslims revolted repeatedly against the Portuguese. Eventually Portugal was exhausted. Being a small country with only 1 million impoverished, illiterate, and oppressed farmers with corrupt leaders, Portugal could not recruit enough troops to protect all the territories under its control. The Portuguese were therefore easily defeated by the growing Muslim resistance and the appearance on the scene of the new rising powers of Holland, France, and England that also wanted to share in the trade. Portuguese power was finally broken in 1729 CE. The Portuguese destroyed trade and made no positive contributions to East African culture. Their only worthy contributions were the introduction of American crops (cassava, maize, pineapples, pawpaw, cashew nuts, avocado) and the use of dung as fertilizer.
Post-Portuguese revival: After the expulsion of the Portuguese a new revival started. The Kiswahili language developed and was written using the Arabic script. Three types of poems, mashairi, were written: songs, nyimbo; tales, hadithi; and heroic poems, utendi. A famous poem was written by Sayid Abdulla, a member of an honored family of poets between 1810 and 1820. Another period of growth was the spread of Islam into the interior of East Africa. This was at first by Swahili traders who traveled into the interior. The process was however accelerated inadvertently by European colonial rule established by 1900 all over East Africa. They employed Swahili as administrators and the latter spread their religion and culture.
WEST AFRICAN ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
Trans-Saharan trade: Muslim traders had been crossing the Sahara to trade in the Sahel zone of West Africa for centuries. They introduced Islamic culture in the region and many Africans converted to Islam. Muslim empires of Mali and Songhay were established. A period of stagnation followed the decline of these empires until the 18th and 19th centuries of the Christian era when the reform movement, tajdid, led to establishment of the Sokoto Khalifate and other Muslim states that faced European colonial invasion of the 19th century of the Christian era.
Mali: With the decline of Ghana, Mali arose as the new power in West Africa. The Malian ruler Sundiata Kiata, reigned 1230-1255 CE, conquered Ghana. Mali was to grow to be a prosperous trading empire. One of the most famous rulers was Mansa Musa who reigned 1312 – 1337 CE. He made pilgrimage to Makka in 1324-1325 CE, a journey that took him 14 months accompanied by 12,000 servants. He took so much gold with him that the value of gold fell by 12% in Cairo and other places where he passed. The pilgrimage helped cement ummatic networks. Mansa Musa was in contact with Muslims from other parts of the world. He brought back with him scholars and professionals to help build his empire. He built a famous university in Timbuktu.
Songhay: Songhay was a small state that grew to become a big empire, the Songhay empire (800-1500s CE). It was under Mali for sometime but in the 1400s CE broke away to become an independent state. It was eventually destroyed by Moroccan attacks in 1590-1591 CE
The Sokoto Khalifate: This was a large empire which at its greatest expansion covered 180,000 square miles in Northern Nigeria and neighboring countries. Its founder was Shehu Dan Fodio, an Islamic scholar and preacher. After wandering in search of knowledge he finally settled down at the age of 20 to teach. Many students flocked to him and he gained a lot of influence. This alarmed the rulers of that time and they attempted to kill him. He led his followers in a jihad that resulted in the establishment of the Sokoto Khalifate. By Dan Fodio’s death in 1817 the state was well established. Education was encouraged. An impartial justice system was set up. The capital was at Sokoto but each province had its own emir who was generally independent in the conduct of local affairs. The Sokoto state united Muslims. Islam undermined tribal loyalties replacing them with loyalty to Islam. The state was a stimulus to education and spread of Islam. The leaders were scholars. Many libraries were set up. Arabic became the official language. Trade and agriculture prospered. Towards the end of the 19th century CE, the state had become weak and was defeated by the technologically advanced British troops that took control of the country but left the administrative machinery of the khalifate intact preferring to rule through it rather than replacing it.
The State of Macina: In then late 18th century, Hamad Bari had been influenced by the teachings of Othman dan Fodio. He declared jihad and defeated the pagan rulers setting up an Islamic state. Islamic law and taxation were imposed. A censor of public morals was appointed to cleanse the capital city of Timbuktu of evil. Hamad Bari died in 1844 CE and was succeeded by his son. The Macina state was later absorbed into the new Muslim state of Tokolot under al hajj Umar
The Tukolor state of al hajj Umar: al hajj Umar was born in 1794 CE. He went on hajj and spent 20 years away visiting and witnessing reform and jihad movements in Arabia, Egypt, Bornu, and Sokoto. He studied at Sokoto and also visited Macina. He became supreme head of the Tijaniyah order in West Africa and undertook extensive preaching tours in the period 1839-1848 CE calling for social reform. He became popular as a result and had many followers. He engaged in military and political conflicts with the French who were starting their colonial adventures in Senegal. The state started to weaken after the death of its founder in 1864 and by 1900 CE was completely taken over by the French.
The Empire of Bornu-Kanem: Bornu was an old state whose rulers had converted to Islam in the 11th century CE. It was united with Kanem in the 18th century. Under the leadership of al Kanami it became stronger. Al Kanami was a scholar who had lived in fezzan, Egypt, and Arabia. Before his death in 1847 CE he had reorganized the state. He enforced Islamic law and assisted education. The empire later declined due to internal divisions and economic collapse. In 1900 the British took it over but left its government in place preferring to rule indirectly through exisiting political structures.
Mandinka empire of Samory Toure: Samory Toure was a convert to Islam who managed in a short time to build an empire that in 1886 CE covered an area of 115,000 square miles. The Mandinka were united because of the pride in their ancient empire of Mali. Samory Toure suppressed animism and stressed education. He made sure that every village had a mosque, a school, and a teacher. He used the army as an agent of education and literacy. He encouraged trade. He had an effective administrative system that enabled him to destroy tribalism and develop a national spirit. Islamic law was practised. He engaged in a 7-year guerrilla war against the better armed French. He was defeated and was exiled to Gabon where he died in 1900 CE.
ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION IN SOUTH EAST ASIA
The State of Malacca:
The State of Aceh
Sulu Sultanate
Sultanate of Brunei
Malay civilization & language
ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION IN SOUTH ASIA
Mughal: The Mughal dynasty was founded by babur in 932H. Two of its illustrious rulers were Jalaluddin Akbar 963-1014H and Muhyddiin Aurangzeb 1068-1118H. After the death of Aurangzeb there was a decline. After the Indian mutiny of 1857, the British abolished the Mughal dynasty and took over direct control of India.
ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION IN CENTRAL ASIA
CHINA and the FAR EAST
D. ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
UNITY
Islam established a pax islamica which was a wide expanse of territory from China to the east to the Atlantic in the west and from the Mediterranean to the forest belt of tropical Africa. People of many cultures and ethnicities lived in this big state under the protection of Islamic law. The ideological and cultural unity allowed exchange of ideas and skills which led to growth of science and technology. There was extensive travel for example al Mas-udi (890-956 CE) traveled to the coast of present-day Tanzania. Ibn Batuta (1304-1377 CE) was a Moroccan traveler who visited the then known Muslim world. He visited China, India, East Africa and the Empire of Mali.
TRADE
Pax islamica established conditions of rule of law and order over a very wide expanse of territory which encouraged trade exchange
SCIENCE and MEDICINE
Muslims translated Greek sciences and added on their own research. The same knowledge bequeathed to Europe in the 15-16th centuries CE triggered the European renaissance.
LAW
The development of usul al fiqh as a methodological discipline is a pride for Muslims because no other community has developed such a powerful methodology.
LANGUAGE
Several new languages were developed in the ummat all based on Arabic or borrowing many Arabic words: Urdu in South Asia, ki-Swahili in East Africa, Hausa in West Africa, Melayu in South-East Asia, and the various Turkish languages.
E. DECLINE and REVIVAL
INTERNAL CAUSES OF DECLINE
Change of the quality of the population base
Split between the ideological and political leaderships
Corruption, injustice, and immorality
Ethnocentricity
Ideological confusions
EXTERNAL CAUSES OF DECLINE: EUROPEAN COLONIAL & CULTURAL INVASION
Early Military invasions: The ummat suffered a lot from foreign military invasions. The most devastating was the Mongol invasion and destruction of Baghdad. The Mongols were soon stopped from further expansion and they accepted Islam becoming part of the ummat. The second major military set-back was the expulsion of Muslims from Andalusia that was completed in 1492 CE.
European Colonial invasion and occupation of Egypt: Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt in 1798 CE and even if the French army stayed a short time, they left behind a cultural legacy that has survived to our day. European interest in Egypt revived in 1869 CE with the completion of the Suez canal. Egypt was misled into indebtedness to European financiers that led to the 1876 CE joint Anglo-French control of the Egyptian government on the grounds of ensuring debt repayment. By 1882 CE Egypt had lost its independence completely and became a British possession until 1932 CE. Even after independence the Egyptian King was still controlled by European powers and there was a lot of nationalist agitation against this. A military coup in 1952 overthrew the corrupt monarchy and declared a republic.
European Colonial invasion and occupation of West Asia: The Osmanli state for more than 500 years protected the Muslim heartland of West Asia from foreign invasion. When the central government weakened, Europeans started undermining the state. They started by helping the Balkan territories under osmanli rule to secede and become independent. Egypt and North Africa were colonized in the 18th- 19th century. It was then the turn of West Asia. When the osmanli state entered the World War I on the side of Germany, the allied forces of Britain and France invaded and occupied Syria, Palestine, and Iraq. The British intelligence officer, Lawrence of Arabia, formented Arab nationalism and encouraged the Arabs to revolt against the Osmanli state under a false promise of independence after the defeat of the Osmanli. With Turkey in defeat, the promises of independence in Syria and Palestine were not honored. The Shariff of Makka joined the Arab revolt hoping to be made the ruler of all Arabs. Instead his own fiefdom in Hejaz was incorporated by force into the new Saudi state. The interior of the Arab peninsula was not occupied militarily because it was thought to be a poor desert. The British took over control of the small states around the Persian gulf. Persia maintained nominal independence but British and later American interests were in effective control. The cultural invasion involved marginalizing the shariat and introducing a secularist Arab or Persian nationalist ideology.
European Colonial invasion and occupation of Sudan: The British had gained a foot-hold in the Sudan by dubious means. European officers administrative officers in Sudan were employed by the Khedive of Egypt but in essence serving the interests of their countries. In 1884 CE the Islamic forces of Imaam Ahmad Muhammad al Mahdi, the leader of the Sudanese Islamic revival movement, defeated the British and forced them to leave the Sudan. A big British expeditionary force re-conquered the Sudan in 1899 CE. Sudan thereafter remained under British colonial rule until it gained its political independence in 1956 CE. Soon was engulfed in a civil war since independence because the southern part wanted to secede. It was under military rule in 1958-1964 CE , 1969-1985, and 1989-present.
European Colonial invasion and occupation of North Africa: The French invaded Algeria in 1837 CE and faced a lot of resistance the last revolt being in 1877 CE. Tunisia was occupied in 1881 CE. Morocco was placed under British control by 1912 CE but the last revolt against colonial rule was in 1926-1931 CE. The Italians entered Libya but had to contend with a determined resistance that was not finally crushed until 1934 CE.
European Colonial invasion and occupation of West Africa: In 1817 the French occupied the mouth of the Senegal river and started moving inland. By 1893 CE the Tokolor empire of al Hajj Umar was overrun. The Mandinka empire of Samory Toure was defeated in 1898 CE. IN the period 1900-1904 CE the Sokoto Khalifate fell under British control.
European Colonial invasion and occupation of East Africa: In 1890 Germany took over Tanganyika. The British occupied Kenya in and Uganda in 1893 CE. The Muslim revolution that started in 1888 CE was defeated by superior British arms.
European Colonial invasion and occupation of South Asia: The British starting in the 18th century gradually encroached on Indian territory. The last Mughal emperor was exiled in 1857 CE and the whole of India came under British control. They however failed to subdue the afghan tribes.
Russian Colonial invasion and occupation of Central Asia:
European Colonial invasion and occupation of South-East Asia:
The Muslim Malay trading state of Malacca was invaded and was destroyed by the Portuguese in the 16th century. They were in turn ousted by the Dutch who were also ousted by the British, By 1874 under the Pangkor engagement the British had effective control of economically viable parts of the Malay peninsula. The British also controlled the northern part of Borneo island leaving the southern part to Dutch control. Indian and Chinese immigration was encouraged to work in the mines and the rubber plantations. The Dutch controlled Java and Sumatra. The Americans took control of the Phillipines in 1899 CE and the process of marginalizing the Muslims in Mindanao started.
REVIVAL MOVEMENTS
The history of Islamic revivalist movements that arose as a response to colonial invasion has been described before.
3.5.5 THE RISE and FALL OF CIVILISATIONS, al dawrat al hadhariyat
A. CONCEPTS
STUDY OF HISTORY
The Qur’an has called for study of the history of past human experiences (p 217 3:137, 6:11, 12:109, 16:36, 22:46, 27:69, 29:20, 30:9, 30:42, 35:44, 40:21, 40:82, 47:10). This enables learning valuable lessons that are useful for the contemporary and future periods (p 217-221 3:137, 6:11, 6:42-45, 7:4-5, 7:94-95, 7:96-103, 8:52-54, 9:69-70, 10:13-14, 11:100-102, 11:120, 12:111, 14:9, 15:10-13, 16:26, 16:36, 16:63, 17:17, 18:32-44, 18:59, 19:74, 19:98, 20:128, 21:11-15, 22:45-46, 22:48, 24:34, 25:38-40, 27:69, 28:58, 29:38-40, 30:9-10, 32:26, 34:45, 35:44, 36:30-31, 37:71-73, 38:3, 39:25-26, 40:5, 40:21-22, 40:82-85, 41:13, 43:6-8, 44:37, 46:27, 47:10, 47:13, 50:36-37, 54:4-5, 53:50-55, 54:51, 64:5-6, 65:8-9, 67:18, 69:4-12).
RISE and FALL OF CIVILIZATIONS
The Qur’an mentions the civilizational cycles among communities, tilka al ayaam nudawiluha bayna al naas (3:140). Those who are strong today may weaken tomorrow and those who are weak today may become strong tomorrow. Each community or civilisation has a fixed term, ajal al umam (p 73 7:34, 7:135, 10:49) much like human life, ajal al insaan. It can die as much as a human dies. The rise and fall of civilizations follows fixed social laws. If a community does the right things Allah gives them strength for a limited time as a test. If they persist in doing good they will continue being strong. It is however part of human nature that as soon as they become strong, they relax and pick up bad behavior which leads to a downfall. Luxury and excess, taraf, are the commonest causes of civilizational decay (p 233 11:116, 17:16, 21:13, 23:33, 23:64-67, 34:34-35, 43:23, 56:45). Theoretically a community could stay in ascendancy until the last day if it followed closely Allah’s laws in building civilizations. The Qur’an has informed us that the righteous inherit the earth (p 96-97 7:100, 7:128-129, 7:137, 12:21, 14:14, 17:104, 21:105, 22:41, 24:55, 28:5-6, 33:27, 38:26, 39:74). A community changes for the good or the bad by the change of individuals in it (p 240 8:53, 13:11). Existence of laws that determine the rise and fall of civilizations does not imply historical determinism as propounded by Marxist thinkers. Events are sometimes contrary to the ordinary laws.
ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The climate determines where people live, what they wear, the type of house, the crops grown, the nature of economic activity, and the type of social organization. Climate affects the way people behave. Natural resources affect the location of a civilization. Rich soils allow agriculture. Coal and iron lay the basis for industrialization. A difficult environment can lead to development by forcing people to look for practical solutions that will make their daily lives more bearable. Civilizations first developed along river banks because of ease of transport and access to water for agriculture. Civilizations grew in plains and not on mountains because of ease of transport. The mountainous terrain explains why Greeks lived in several independent city-states and not one centralized state. The Nile and the small strip of fertile land along it explains the power of the central government in Egypt because people had no where to escape if they rebelled against authority. The correlation of environmental conditions to the level of material development of a civilization is difficult and rather complex. Whereas the ease of life in the tropics has been advanced as the reason discouraging technological development, the difficulties of the cold areas of North America did not make the Amerinds any more developed.
COMMUNICATION AND CIVILISATION
Some environments favor easy transport and therefore spread of ideas. The open grasslands of central Asia, the desert and semi-deserts of the middle-east and North Africa encouraged land movement over long distances. The coasts and bays of Europe also enabled sea transport to link communities. The forested regions of sub-saharan Africa and South-east Asia made movement difficult; thus no great civilizations developed in these parts of the world. Ease of transport also determines the end of a civilisation. When its geographical expansion becomes so big that effective communication and control are not possible it breaks up into smaller groups or may eventually lose its distinct identity.
B. ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
PRE-HISTORY
Human history can be divided into two distinct parts: prehistory before the development of writing and the historical period when written records are available. Different groups of people have gone through these periods at different times; there are people living on earth today in the pre-historic era. In the paleolithic pre-historic era, humans were food gatherers. They used stone tools. One of their major discoveries was the making of fire for warmth and cooking. They lived in caves and wore skins. Later they started hunting and living in villages where more permanent homes were built. Once they settled down in communities more civilizational developments occurred.
THE FERTILE RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS OF MESOPOTAMIA, cradle of civilization
Sumeria: The Sumerian civilisation (3500-2000 BC) arose in the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It is the earliest known human civilization. The Sumerians learned how to control the river flooding and how to build irrigation canals to enable them grow crops. They invented the wheel and the plough. They were the first to develop writing, a form or cuneiform writing. They had a government and laws. They built cities that became city-states. They worshipped many gods. The priests grew powerful and eventually became hereditary kings. About 2400 BC the power of Sumer began to wane. Sumer was conquered by Akkadia. The Babylonians in turn conquered both Sumer and Akadia in about 1800BC.
Assyria: The Assyrian (800 BC-612 BC). Assyrians were warriors in the upper Tigris. By 800BC they had taken control of cities and trading routes in Mesopotamia. Their power was due to a well organized army and their use of iron weapons (copied from Hittites). They were cruel; they killed and burned wherever they went. Many people surrendered without fighting. The Assyrians built a powerful empire that they divided into several provinces connected by good roads. The empire became too large to be governed effectively. Eventually the Chaldeans (Babylonians) captured the capital Nineveh in 612 BC and the Assyrian empire ceased to exist.
Babylonia: Babylon (1700-530 BC) was a powerful empire in Mesopotamia. It conquered and took over much of the Sumerian culture. Hammurabi was one of the great rulers of Babylonia. In 1720 BC Hammurabi built the empire by conquest of neighboring peoples. He extended the empire to the Mediterranean, repaired the irrigation canals, made new laws, expended trade, and improved taxation. Hammurabi's code became very famous. His reign was known as the golden age. Babylonians were skilled mathematicians. They were good farmers. They knew about irrigation, land survey, engineering, astronomy, and medicine. Babylonians developed the number system and had clocks controlled by falling water. The Assyrians briefly took ovet the empire until they were defeated by Nebuchadenezer who built a strong Chaldean empire with the capital at Babylon.
Chaldeans: Chaldeans were descendants of Hammurabi’s empire. They were warriors who conquered many people under Nebuchadnezer. They extended their power to Syria and Palestine. They built a new Babylon with more than 1 million people. The city was rich with the famous hanging gardens and the tower of Babel. Caravans came from far away lands to Baylon for purposes of trade. The city became a center of science especially astronomy. They later found it difficult to control their empire; The Persians took it over by 539 BC.
THE NILE VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS
Egypt: The ancient Egyptian (3100-525 BC) civilization prospered in the Nile valley. The annual flooding of the river deposited fertile silt that supported agriculture and made them good farmers. They were protected from foreign invasions by the Mediterranean sea, the desert on both sides of the river, and the cataracts along the river. In 3100 BC lower and upper Egypt were united into one state that was called the ancient kingdom and it lasted 500 years until 2600BC. During this time the pharaohs were priest-kings. They were respected and pyramids were built for them. Egyptians believed in many gods. They believed in the hereafter and therefore embalmed their dead. The middle kingdom started in 2300 BC when great officials expelled the pharaohs and controlled the government for 200 years. The pharaohs were later brought back but with reduced power. The Hyksos invaded Egypt in 1786 BC and brought the middle kingdom to an end. They ruled Egypt for 150 years and were overthrown in an uprising led by an Egyptian prince. In the following era, the new kingdom, Egypt became richer. Egyptians invaded neighboring countries and engaged in external trade. They also started worshipping a new god. By 1000 BC Egypt had declined. The Decline of Egypt started when the pharaoh did not like and expelled the powerful priests. The Egyptian empire was further weakened by rebellions. External wars also drained the country's resources. The Assyrians invaded Egypt in 671 BC. The Kushites invaded Egypt in the 8th century BC. The Persians invaded in the 6th century BC. The Greeks under Alexander the Great invaded in the 4th century BC and controlled Egypt for 3 centuries. The Greeks were replaced by the Romans who were eventually defeated by Muslim armies. Egyptians made many contributions to civilization: papyrus paper; the decimal number system based on 10, fractions and whole numbers; geometry; and the calendar. They made many contributions to medicine. They were the first to use splints, bandages, and compresses. They discovered treatments for indigestion and hair loss. They developed 3 types of writing one of them was called hieroglyphics. The pyramids they build stand as monuments of architectural achievement to our day yet they also are a monument to human exploitation, thousands of slaves died in their construction.
THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
The Indus valley civilisation grew in the period 2000-1500 BC. They learned how to control the flooding of the Indus river and became good farmers. They discovered cotton for cloth making. They used fired bricks to build their cities. They had two main cities, Harapa and Mohanjodano, which were the first planned communities in the world. By 1700 BC the Harappan civilization declined for reasons that are not known. By 1200 BC Aryan invaders had taken over the Indus valley. The Aryans moved forced the Dravidians to the south of India where their descendants continue to live today. Hinduism developed about 3000 years ago. Budhism started in about 500 BC. Alexander the great invaded India in 320 BC but did not establish a permanent presence. Thereafter the Maurya dynasty ruled India until 200 BC. Thereafter many small dynasties followed. The Gupta dynasty in northern India after 300 CE was a period of progress in many aspects of Indian life. The Muslim Mongol invaders started arriving in the 700s AD. In 1398 AD the Mongol emperor Tamerlane captured Delhi. India developed a sophisticated material civilization; cities, roads, and sewers were built. It also developed mathematics and other branches of knowledge. Early in its history, a rigid caste system was introduced in India. It still persists to this day.
HUANG HO (CHINA)
The Chinese (1027-256 BC) built an empire in China. It had achievements in Iron, literature and the arts. The Chinese discovered paper, gunpowder, porceline, printing, and silk. Confucius was a great philosopher who lived at this time. The empire broke up due to internal quarrels. Chinese were good farmers. They built their first cities in 1766BC. They discovered how to make silk. They worshipped spirits and believed that dead ancestors affected their lives. The big gap between the rich and the poor contributed to Shang decline and could not unite to resist the Zhou invasion of 1122BC.
C. REGIONAL POWERS
WEST ASIA
Hitti: The Hittites lived along river Halys in modern-day Turkey. Their civilisation (1900-1200 BC) was the first to use iron. They were weakened by rebellions.
The Persian empire (700 BC-331 BC). Persians were Aryans from the grasslands of Central Asia. In about 2000 BC they settled in the area between the Persian Gulf and the Caspian sea. In about 600 BC they were conquered by the Medes. The Medes were in turn defeated by the Persian king Cyrus who organized an army that conquered a big empire stretching from Egypt to India. Darius was one of the famous Persian kings. Persians developed a strong administration. They worshipped several gods. In about 570 BC Zoroaster taught them a new religion based on fire-worship. Persians were farmers and shepherds. They refused to be traders because it encouraged cheating and lying although they allowed their subject people to engage in trade. They built roads and opened the silk caravan route from China. They introduced the use of coins which facilitated trade. Persians were defeated by Alexander the Great in 31 BC. Later Persia fell under Roman control. A new Persian empire under the Sassanid dynasty broke away from Roman control and became strong under King Bahram (420-439 CE). This empire was brought to and end by the Islamic conquest in 643 CE.
MEDITERRANEAN
Minoa: The Minoan civilisation grew and prospered on Crete island in the period 3000-1100 BC. It started in about 2800 BC. The Minoans were farmers and herders. They built ships and by 2000BC had become the world’s first sea-faring civilization. They liked sports. They built cities. They worshipped many gods and the rulers were priest-kings. By 1400 BC control of the sea passed to the Myceaneans. They were afflicted by a succession of earthquakes. They eventually collapsed. It is not known exactly why the Minoans collapsed.
Mycenaeans: The Myceneans came from present-day Russia. Around 2000 BC they settled in the lowlands of Greece. They were farmers, herders, and hunters. They learned writing, ship building and navigation from the Minoans. Being warriors they replaced the Minoans by 1400 BC as a dominant power in the area. They attacked Troy and Asia Minor in the middle of the 1200s BC. Due to civil wars the Myceneans weakened and were conquered by the Dorians. A general collapse of trade in the Mediterranean followed for the next 800 years.
Greece: By 700 BC several Greek cities were established. Each had 5000-10,000 citizens and the rest of the population were servants. The Greeks lived in the southern part of what is today Greece. They constructed buildings and sculptures. They excelled in science, poetry, drama, and philosophy. The Greek city-states had a flowering civilisation that produced intellectual giants. like Hippocrates, Euclid, Archimedes, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates taught people to think and to ask questions. Plato was a student of Socrates who set up and taught at an Academy for 40 years. He taught order, did not like political liberty, and preferred rule by the wise and the good. He put down his ideas in a book called ‘The Republic’. Aristotle taught logic. Thales taught the scientific method. Hippocrates was a pioneer in medicine. A major contribution of Greeks to the scientific methodology was their discovery that the world was governed by natural laws. The most famous Greek city states were Sparta and Athens. By 500 BC Sparta had the strongest army. It was first ruled by a King but in 800 BC the aristocrats took over power. All citizens were members of the assembly. Land was worked by slaves and trade was left to traders. The aristocrats trained only for the army. Weak newborns were abandoned to die in the hills. Boys started rigorous military training at the age of 7 years. Sparta did not develop trade, use of money or literature; it remained a poor farming society whose only goal was military strength. Sparta was defeated in 371 BC. Athens was first ruled by Kings. By 750 BC the nobles took over and set up an oligarchy; democratic rights were expanded later. Education was encouraged. In 490 BC Athens defeated the Persian army under Darius. The Persians however returned in 480 BC and set Athens on fire; the Greeks however defeated the Persian fleet and the Persian wars were over. Athens grew stronger which made other Greek states jealous. This led to the Pelopeniusian wars that lasted for 30 years. In 404 BC Athens surrendered to Sparta and started declining after that. Other city states declined after that and all Greek city states were conquered by Philipp II of Macedonia in 338BC. The Greeks worshipped many gods. They developed sports and the theatre.
Hellenistic period: This is the period during which Greek culture spread in Asia and North Africa. Philip of Macedonia developed a standing army. He improved weapons and tactics. He was therefore able to conquer Greek city states in 338 BC and prepared to attack Persia. He died in 338 BC before accomplishing his ambitions. His son Alexander the Great completed the conquests. He crushed the Persians and subdued territory from the Nile to India. He built the city of Alexandria. He died in Persia in 323 BC at the early age of 33 years. After his death the empire broke up. Greek culture however spread. Trade grew. However due to economic decline, most Greek city states were under Roman control by 146 BC.
Phenecia: Phoenecia extended 320 km along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians lived in Northern Canaan. They were of two groups: Canaanites (herders) and philistines (traders and ship-builders). They were great sea-farers and had established overseas colonies such as Carthage in North Africa. Phoenecians depended on trade by sea. They explored the seas guided by the stars. They developed sophisticated business methods. Phoenicians developed an alphabet that is the forerunner of the Latin alphabet used by Europeans today. They modified the Egyptian hieroglyphics system to produce their alphabet. The Greeks copied the Phoenician alphabet. The Greek alphabet eventually became the Roman alphabet used today. Phoenecians were famous for the manufacture of clothes. Phoenecia remained a collection of cities and never developed into one united state. The most important cities were: Beirut, Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon. Each city had a king. There were rivalries between cities. Carthage was a Phoencian colony in North Africa founded in 814 BC. Being trading cities, the port was the most important part of the city. The phoenecians believed in life after death. They copied the Egyptian tradition of embalming the dead. They were subsequently conquered by Assyrians, Persians, the Greeks, and finally in 64 BC by the Romans
AFRICA
Kush: Kush was in the present-day Sudan lying on the Nile River. Its history started in about 2000 BC. They were conquered by the Egyptian New Kingdom and were controlled for 500 years. During this period they learned the Egyptian religion, worked in copper and bronze and adapted the Egyptian hieroglyphics in about 300 BC to make their own system of writing. The Kushites worked iron and pottery. Knowledge of iron working could have spread from Kush to the rest of Africa. They built pyramids. With the decline of Egyptian power they reclaimed their independence and set up their capital at Napata on the Nile. Starting in 750 BC they invaded Egypt and controlled it for 70 years until they were driven out by the Assyrians. The Kushites learned iron smelting from the Assyrians and made tools that helped expand agriculture and trade. They remained a trading empire until they were defeated by Aksum (from Ethiopia) in about 350 AD.
Ethiopia: Aksum was a trading country along the Red Sea. Trade started in about 500 BC. By 350 CE Aksum was a powerful trading state in north-east Africa and the Red sea. Aksum mixed with and learned from Sabeans of the Arabian peninsula. They invaded and destroyed Kush. Their King Ezana converted to Christianity in 324 AD. They developed a writing system and learned how to farm on terraces. After 700 CE Aksum declined due to wars. With the rise of Islam they retreated into the interior where they lived in isolation for 1000 years and became parents of later Ethiopian civilizations. About 1300 CE Christian kings of Ethiopia who claimed descent from Queen Sheba started invading Muslim states in the region. Muslims fought back after 1400 CE. A powerful Muslim commander, Ahmad Gran, invaded Ethiopia that was saved from defeat by Portuguese intervention. Ethiopia is the longest surviving Christian civilization; it retreated into the interior in inaccessible mountains.
Nubia: Starting in 400 CE, Nuba nomads settled in the Kushitic towns. In the mid-6th century CE Christian monks arrived and started converting people. By 600 CE all the leading people had accepted Christianity.. They developed a Christian civilization that lasted over 600 years until defeated by the Ayyubids. This civilization made brilliant progress in building monasteries, churches, schools, and towns. There were many beautiful works of art. Writing was developed in both Greek and Nubian. Good relations were established with Egypt and Muslim traders. Trade prospered. The Ayyubids conquered Nubia by the 15th century CE and the whole of Nubia came under Muslim influence while Christianity disappeared.
Ghana: In 350 AD the people of Ghana learned how to smelt iron. They became middle men in the gold trade between the forest area of West Africa and North Africa. Ghana had a big army. The King was pagan but many Muslim traders lived in the capital of Koumbi Salleh that lies in modern-day Mauritania.
Zimbabwe: The Zimbabwe civilization thrived in present-day Zimbabwe. It was settled in about 300 CE by farmers, herders, and iron smelters. Towards 1100 CE they started building in stone.
THE AMERICAS
Olmecs: The Olmec civilization started in 1000BC. The Olmecs lived on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico. They were farmers and built stone cities. They had hieroglyphic writing and a calendar. The civilization disappeared after 900 years.
Maya: The Mayans of Central America (300 BC-900 AD) were skilled mathematicians, astronomers, and architects but did not discover the wheel. The Mayan civilization thrived in present-day Mexico and Belize where ruins can be found even today. Their empire began in 500 BC and reached a peak in 500 – 900 AD. The Mayans were farmers. They built stone cities that were linked by roads. They were great traders trading in canoes along the coast. They adopted their own hieroglyphics writing from the Olmecs. They discovered the zero and developed a counting system based on 20. Their astronomers could predict the eclipse. They developed a calendar based on that of the Olmecs. Their calendar had 365 days in the year. They manufactured cloth and paper. About 900 AD they disappeared for no known reason.
Aztecs: The Aztec, warlike farmers, developed their empire starting in the 1200s CE. The Aztecs came from northern Mexico and settled at the present site of Mexico city. They started building a capital city in 1325 AD. By 1400 they had a population of 5 million people. They went on to conquer neighboring people and built an empire. They had advanced farming, curved stones. The capital, Tenochititlan, had pyramidal temples. The Aztecs however did not discover the wheel. They worshipped a sun god and practiced human sacrifice. The empire reached its peak in the early 1500s under Montezuma. The empire was completely destroyed in 1521 CE by Spanish invaders.
Incas: The Incas were farmers and herders. In 1438 they conquered neighboring people and established the Inca Empire. They forced Inca religion and language on the conquered people. The Inca Empire stretched along the west coast of South America for 4000 kilometers and had a total population of 12 million people by the 1500s. They had paved roads and rope-suspended bridges that crossed canyons and rivers. They however developed no writing. The empire was destroyed by the Spaniards in the 1500s CE.
D. THE WORLD EMPIRES
THE ROMAN EMPIRE, pax romana
Over-view of the Roman empire, pax romana: The Roman Empire (735 BC-475 AD) is one of the greatest empires in history. Romans ruled almost all of Europe. Rome was a republic in 509-27 BC and an empire in 27 BC-180 CE. Romans were good administrators and law-givers. They fell because of civil wars and assassinations. The western empire was destroyed by Barbarian invaders in 476 AD. The eastern empire lasted until 1453 AD when the city of Constantinolople was conquered by Muhammad al Fatih and was renamed Istanbul. At its peak the Roman empire covered 5 million square kilometers and had 50 million citizens.
Start and rise of the Roman empire: The start of the Roman empire were legendary. The Etruscans took control of Rome in 616 BC. The Romans learned a lot from the Etruscans as they started building their empire. The Roman republic was headed by 2 consuls who had both to agree before a law was passed. The consuls were helped by a senate. Tribunes were assemblies to which citizens were elected. Roman laws were written down in 450 BC. Rome expanded and by 275 BC ruled the whole Italian peninsular. By 146 BC it ruled the whole Mediterranean. The Romans had a strong army. They fought Carthageans in what were called the punic wars. The Romans eventually subdued the Carthageans after they mastered naval warfare. The empire continued growing after that. Small farms were replaced by estates. Slavery was introduced to provide labor for the estates. People forced to migrate to the cities lived in poor conditions. The empire started to weaken due to corruption, economic collapse, and the wide gap between the rich and the poor. Attempts at reform by Tiberius and Garius were not successful. The generals eventually took control. A triumvirate was set up with Caesar as a member. Caesar became dominant and by 46 BC he was sole dictator of Rome. He tried to undertake reforms but was assassinated in 44 BC. By 31 BC the republic was ended. Augustus became the ruler and reorganized the government. There was peace and trade increased. By 125 AD Roman law was standardized. Leisure and games were developed. However by 476 AD the empire had collapsed due to political instability, high taxation, inflation, and invaders.
Decline and fall of the Roman empire: In the late 300s AD, Huns led by Attila attacked the Goths (German tribes) and forced them to seek shelter in the Roman empire. The Goths later rebelled and defeated the Romans captured and looted in 410 AD but they moved on to conquer Spain and did not establish a permanent presence in Rome. By 550 AD the Roman empire in the west had collapsed and was replaced by several states. The eastern empire based at Constantinolople persisted. Throughout the middle ages there were attempts to recreate the European system that collapsed with the end of the Roman empire. The Franks were a Germanic people who controlled modern France and West Germany and had converted to Christianity. One of their rulers, Charles Martel, stopped the Muslim advance into France at Tours in 711 AD. Charlemagne was a powerful Frankish king who united the tribes and created a large empire by 800 AD. He was crowned emperor of the Romans by the Pope but his empire collapsed after his death in 814 AD. The Holy Roman Empire continued in Germany but as a weaker entity.
WESTERN EUROPE AFTER ROME
Cultural unity of Europe: Understanding of modern Europe requires careful study of the Roman empire that had united European people under one political authority. Since the collapse of the empire, the church played a role in maintaining a semblance of a European order. The Habsburg family played a role in the unity of Europe because most royals were related by blood or by marriage. Several military adventurers including Napoleon and Hitler attempted European political unity by force. Towards the end of the 20th century CE, Europe is moving voluntarily to political unity. A European common market had been established as early as 1957. Several European institutions like the European parliament and the European Monetary Unit. Full European political unity is envisaged in the future.
The Christian Church: Christianity has played an important role in the lives of people in many continents. After the collapse of the Roman empire, the Roman Catholic Church remained as a European institution that filled the vacuum. Isa (PBUH) had 12 disciples who spread Christianity in the then Roman empire. Early Christians were persecuted until Emperor Constantine gave them freedom by the edict of Milan. Pax romana helped the spread of Christianity even when Christians were persecuted. In 312 AD Constatine I became a Christian. The next emperor made Christianity the official religion of the empire. Towards the end of the 300s AD the New Testament was accepted as a comprising the writings of Mathew, Mark, Like, John and the epistles of Paul. The Church became structured into parishes and dioceses. By 600 AD the Archbishop of Rome was called the Pope but Greek-speaking Christians followed the archbishop of Constantinople. As a result of disagreements, the church split into an eastern and a western wing in 1054 CE. The western wing was called the Roman catholic Church and the eastern wing was called the Eastern Orthodox Church.
The middle ages and feudalism: During the middle ages, a feudal society developed in Europe. It was an agrarian society based on inhuman exploitation of the serfs. There was general insecurity and disorder in Europe during the middle ages. Ignorance was wide-spread and Greek and Roman knowledge were forgotten. After the collapse of the western Roman empire, the church retreated into the monasteries. Monks working in monasteries preserved Greek and Roman knowledge during the middle ages (500 AD – 1500 AD), the period between the fall of the Roman empire and the rise of modern times. The church called for crusades which were wars to expel Muslims from Palestine and lasted 200 years. Jerusalem was captured in 1099 AD and was looted. Salahuddin al Ayyuubi recaptured the city in 1187 AD. The Church became powerful and cruel in the middle ages. Mercatile growth towards the end of the middle ages manifested as new trading cities. Merchants in Genoa, Venice and other cities became very wealthy. Professional guilds arose as the manufacturing industry developed. Europeans became jealous of the Muslim control of Asian trade. They were also under military pressure of the Muslim Osmanli state that was expanding into south and central Europe towards the end of the medieval period.
Renaissance: Towards the end of the middle ages, new ideas developed in Europe that were to lead to the renaissance. The renaissance and rediscovery of lost Greek and Roman knowledge. The rise of empiricism gave an impetus to science and technology. Renaissance started in Italian city states of Florence, Venice, and the papal states. It first spread to France and Germany. It later reached England and Spain. In 1440 CE had Gutenberg invented the printing press. This was the forerunner in the increased dissemination of knowledge and information as well as mass communication. Renaissance ideas were able to spread quickly because of mass printing of books.
Reformation: The renaissance brought many political, religious and intellectual changes. There was a lot of corruption in the medieval church and people asked for reforms which later gave rise to the protestant movement. In the 1500s CE the protestant reformation led to another split in the western church into the Catholic and several protestant churches. Since that time ecumenical movements have been trying to re-unite the church with little success. Martin Luther started the reformation movement in Germany. The Lutheran church was formed in 1524. Lutheran ideas spread to other parts of Europe resulting in the setting up of protestant churches. In response the catholic church also underwent reform. King Henry VIII took England out of the catholic church. The reformation led to religious wars that were fought between Protestants and Catholics from the late 1500s to 1648.
Age of exploration: The year 1492 CE was a momentous one in the history of the ummat because of the final expulsion of Muslims from the Iberian peninsula and the demise of the Andalusian Islamic civilization. New Christian nations, Spain and Portugal, arose on the peninsula. The Portuguese set themselves the task of outflanking Muslim traders by looking for a direct sea-route to Asia to import goods instead of middlemen in West Asia. In the late 1400s the Portuguese started the age of discovery. Under Prince Henry the navigator they made rapid progress. They reached Senegal in 1440 CE, Nigeria in 1472 CE, and River Congo in 1483. The Portuguese captain Vasco da Gama finally reached India in 1498. The Portuguese occupied trading stations on the East African coast, India, and South-east Asia. They also established themselves in what later became the Portuguese-speaking territory of Brazil. The Spanish soon followed the Portuguese in exploration. Christopher Columbus under Spain discovered America which led to Spanish conquistadors occupying and settling in Central and South America. Ferdinand Magellan flying the Spanish flag was the first to sail around the world. The French, English and Dutch sailed to North America in search for the north-western passage to Asia and in the process discovered new lands. The Portuguese and Spanish empires declined because of internal weaknesses (corruption, ignorance, cruelty, small populations) and many were taken over by the new rising powers of France, England and Holland.
Political revolutions in Europe: In 1642 a civil war broke out in England between the King and Parliament. The American colonies rebelled and declared their independence from Britain in 1776 and after a protracted war Britain surrendered in 1781. The French revolution breaking out in 1789 led to the overthrow of the monarchy and influenced political developments elsewhere in Europe. Soon Napoleon Bonaparte appeared as the strong man of the French revolution. He attempted by war to unite Europe and spread French ideas and culture. Napoleon controlled all of Europe with the exception of England and Russia. He was finally defeated in 1815 and died later in exile. The year 1848 witnessed revolutions in France and other European countries but they failed to change the established order. The second half of the 19th century saw growth of nationalism. The new nation states of Italy and Germany were formed by union of hitherto independent small states. Italian union was achieved in 1861 and German union in 1871. Nationalism and secularism replaced religion as the guiding philosophies of European society.
Technological Revolutions
The Agricultural revolution started in the 1750s. Improved methods of cultivation produced more food to feed the growing populations. The scientific revolution started with renaissance and reformation. New methods of scientific thinking and investigation were developed. Empiricism developed and replaced the previous concepts based on speculation and not empirical research. The industrial revolution had its beginnings in the 1850s. It started in England and spread to Belgium, France, and Germany. New machines, new forms of energy, and new means of transportation were discovered. There was an immediate and profound social impact. The growth of new cities with migration of many people from the rural areas led to social problems that in their turn called for social reform movements. The factories soon started producing more than what the domestic market could absorb. Competition became very acute leading to industrial depression. Attempts to impose high tariffs to keep out outside competition were not enough to solve the problems.
Economic and political imperialism: Industrial revolution and industrial capitalism directly led to imperialism. The new factories needed raw materials. Markets had to be found overseas for their products. Some Europeans wanted to get colonies overseas to raise the glory of their nation and satisfy nationalistic yearnings. A few had a vague idea of mission civilicatrice, the duty of Europe to bring civilization to backward races (the white man’s burden). Some Europeans worried about the cost of military operations that would be needed to establish colonies; they were however reassured by European superiority in military technology and tactics. Few questioned the morality of imperialism. It was generally justified on a racist basis that it was the right of the advanced Europeans to control and exploit the non-whites and perhaps in the process transfer civilization to them. The concept of colony also changed from a colony of settlement (European immigrants settled and colonized America and Australia) to one of a colony of exploitation. European financiers who had investments in Africa and Asia also exerted pressure on their governments to impose colonial rule in order to protect their interests. Starting in 1884 there was a European scramble for Africa; by 1914 only Ethiopia and Liberia remained as independent countries in Africa. After the failure of the Indian rebellion in 1857, the British government took over direct control of the whole of India. Britain acquired Hong Kong after the Chinese defeat in the opium wars. By 1901 China was under European control and its independence was nominal. The French occupied Cochin in China, Kampuchea, and Laos and formed their Indo-Chinese colony. They also occupied Tahiti. Britain occupied Fiji, Solomon islands, Gilbert island, New Guinea, and Borneo. By the close of the 19th century most Latin American territories were at least nominally independent but European culture and economic interests spread.
Cultural imperialism: Europeans soon discovered that military and political means were not sufficient to control the colonies. They therefore made efforts to introduce their religion, culture, education, law, and ways of life with the aim of creating a native Europeanized class that would help them establish effective control. The French were the most active cultural imperialists. Their policy of assimilation aimed at producing French-men with black or brown skins who would think and act as the French thus serving and protecting the interests of France. In the end cultural imperialism was more successful since it enabled Europeans to secure their economic interests even after giving political independence to their former colonies. Thus cultural imperialism did not only facilitate political control but laid the ground for neo-colonialism. By 1990 most Asian, African, and Caribbean territories had won at least nominal independence but their economic resources and political destinies were tightly controlled by American and European interests. This control is more sophisticated that that under direct colonial rule. It is mediated through nationals of the countries who were educated and molded for their roles in western institutions and who returned to take positions of political leadership.
The World Wars and aftermath: the first world war (1914-1918) and the second world war (1939-1945) were in essence European civil wars but came to be considered world wars because Europeans were controlling so much of the world that many non-Europeans were involved in the conflicts. The post-war years witnessed a lot of social reform programs and more industrial development. These wars weakened Europe so much that it was forced to give up its overseas territories. By 1990 virtually all former colonies were once again independent. In 1949 NATO was formed. The European Community was formed in 1957. European nations are fast moving towards political unity. These moves however can not mask the weaknesses that are manifesting as break-down of the family, falling populations, addiction to drugs, lack of purpose, and vigor among the youths.
BYZANTINE
Emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the empire from Rome to Constantinolople in 330 AD. When the western empire collapsed a century later, the eastern one persisted and prospered for another 1000 years. Constantinolople was an important trade center and had a good defence system. The Justinian law code prevailed. The Church was prominent. Monasteries provided social services. Arguments eventually led to a break between eastern and western Christianity in 1054 AD. The empire later declined due to military weakness and invaders. In the early period of the Prophet’s dawa mission in Makka, there was a military encounter between the then-superpowers of West Asia, Byzantium and Persia. The Qur’an describes the differring sentiments of the Muslims and the non-Muslims in Makka. The non-Muslims hoped for a Persian victory because Persians like pre-Islamic Arabs were idolators. The Muslims hoped for a Byzantine victory. Abubakr made a wager with a non-Muslim and the Qur’an was revealed about the initial defeat of the Byzantines and their eventual victory (p 516 30:2). The fortunes of Byzantium began to change for the worse wit the rise of the Muslim state. Its territories in Syria and Palestine were opened to Islam and it retreated to Anatolia. Its Anatolian territories were gradually chipped away by the Seljuk and Osmanli states until it was It was eventually conquered by the great Muslim commander Sultan Muhammad al Fatih in 1453 AD.
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, pax russica
Moscow was a small principality that grew into an empire. One of the rulers, Ivan the Great, married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor and thought of himself as a successor to Byzantium adopting many Byzantine ideas. Russia was in turmoil following the death of Ivan the terrible who died in 1584. In 1613 the Romanov dynasty took over and ruled until 1917. Peter the Great who ascended the throne in 1648 started modernizing Russia along West European lines. The Russian empire spread to include many territories in Asia. The 19th century was a time of much discontent because of the oppressive serfdom system. An attempted revolution in 1825 failed however in 1862 Czar Alexander freed the serfs but they had no land of their own and had to become tenant farmers. Another uprising in 1905 was put down. Russia entered the first world war and its people suffered a lot of deprivations. This led to the successful 1917 revolt that overthrew the Czar and established a communist government under Lenin. The new government took Russia out of the war but soon a civil war broke out, 1918-1920, between monarchists and communists. By 1921 the communists were victorious and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was formed in 1922. Lenin died in 1924 and after a period of power struggles, Stalin asserted himself in 1928 as the new leader. He pushed industrialization and collectivization which changed Russia from a backward country to an industrial and military power.
THE JAPANESE EMPIRE, pax japanica
The Japanese empire was short-lived because it was based on narrow and extreme nationalism and racism. Japan had resisted European influence until the Meiji restoration in 1868 when it opened its doors to European trade, knowledge and technology. By the end of the 19th century Japan was fully industrialized but managed to keep its independence. The need for land and raw materials set Japan on a war of conquest in Formosa, Manchuria, Korea and parts of Russia. Later the whole of south-east Asia was overrun. Japanese rule was cruel and very exploitative. Japan was defeated and occupied by popular rebellion and military action of the western allies led by the USA towards the end of the World War II and it was forced to give up conquered territory.
THE CHINESE EMPIRE, pax sinica
The Chinese empire has expanded mostly within the borders of modern China. Although many Chinese migrated to live outside China, no overseas territories have been established.
BRITISH EMPIRE, pax brittanica
Pax Britannica (1600s- 1770s CE). Angles, Saxons, and Vikings were early invaders of England. The Romans occupied England in 53 BC and left in 400 AD. The Normans came in 1066 AD, defeated the Anglo-Saxons and started the English culture. They also set up a feudal system. In 1255 AD the magna carta signed by the King guaranteed rule of law. In the 16th century England started building a strong navy that made it a superpower in the subsequent 2-3 centuries. Britain became the richest and most powerful nation during the long reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). At the peak of its power, Britain had an empire over which the sun could not set. In the late 1800s the British empire was 41 square kilometers and had 500 million subjects. The first and second world wars weakened Britain a lot. By 1970 Britain had given up most of its overseas possessions. The British were largely economic imperialists. They controlled territories to the extent that their commerce was facilitated. They preferred tact and diplomacy to force whenever that was possible to secure their commercial interests. They made a long-term investment when they selected children of the local elites and trained them to take over government after the end of direct rule. This ensured continuation of the commercial benefits in the neo-colonial period.
THE AMERICAN EMPIRE, pax americana
The first British settlements in colonial America were at Jamestown in 1607 CE. By 1733 there were 13 colonies along the Atlantic coast. Many of the native Indians died from wars and new diseases introduced from Europe. The British were successful over the French and the Spanish in the struggle for land in North America. High taxation of Americans by the British provoked the war of independence that started in 1775 and was won by the Americans in 1781. In 1783 Britain recognized the independence of its American colonies. A constitution was promulgated in 1789. Westward expansion occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries with more migration from Europe (voluntary) and Africa (involuntary). About 28 million migrated to America in the period 1830-1910 AD. The US survived the civil war of 1861-1864 that was fought over slavery. After world war 1 the US became a world power, a status it continues to enjoy today. America has a strong economy, a simple and aggressive culture, and a youthful and vigorous population being replenished on a continuous basis by migration.
E. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS
REASONS FOR RISE OF CIVILIZATIONS
Innovation and dynamism
Courage, adventurism and risk-taking
Internal freedom
Law and Order
Outward-looking vs narrow ethno-centricism
Group feeling, ‘asabiyyat
Big population
Natural resources
REASONS FOR FALL OF CIVILIZATIONS
Intellectual stagnation
Oppression
Demographic contraction
Economic contraction
REVIVAL OF A CIVILIZATION
No civilization can be eternal
Once a civilization collapses it can not return (22:95)
Only the Islamic civilization can be revived after collapse
THE FUTURE
With the fall of communism, the world become uni-polar being dominated by America and its European allies. China is a rising power with all the characteristics needed to become a controlling world power. Other Asian countries have some economic development but have no matching military power. Sub-Saharan Africa has many resources and people which are not exploited. Europe and America have now entered a period of civilizational decay that they refer to as post-modernism. They still however have a long time as a power. They have managed to spread their culture and languages to many other parts of the world such that they make up by cultural domination what they lack in military and economic domination. They have made their culture and way of life the standard that many people in the world look up to. It is only Islam which at the moment can offer a credible opposition to Western cultural hegemony.