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Paper presented at the 11th Regional leadership Training Programme held in Hungary 21 July - 21 August 1999 by Prof Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr.
OUTLINES
GENERAL CONCEPTS and PRINCIPLES OF GROUP WORK
Groups: Definition, classification
Advantages of group work
Disadvantages of group-work
Group formation and break-up
Characteristics of the ideal group: Goals, culture, and norms
Characteristics of the ideal group: security
Characteristics of the ideal group: group dynamics
Characteristics of the ideal group: performance
Characteristics of the ideal group: leadership
GENERAL GROUP DYNAMICS
General duties and rights of brotherhood
Etiquette of inter-personal interaction
GENERAL CONCEPTS and PRINCIPLES OF GROUP WORK
Groups: Definition, classification: A group is several persons being interdependent and interacting with one another. The minimum size for a group is three. There are no hard and fast rules about group size; it all depends on circumstances. The optimum size for a group is 5-7 members. Larger groups do not give enough opportunity for discussion by individuals. When a group is too large, dividing it into subgroups each specializing on a certain task may be necessary. There are several types of groups: teams, task forces, self-directed work-teams, families, tribes, clans, fraternities, etc. A team is an on-going group that identifies and solves problems; cross-functional on multidisciplinary teams are very effective in solving problems. A task force is a temporary group that dissolves when the problem is over. A task force researches into causes of a problem, and recommends corrective action. In some cases, it may be retained to solve the problem. A self-directed work-team is a group of workers that supervises itself in the identification and solution of problems. It plans, executes, and evaluates its work. The first group you belong to is the family. As you grow you become aware of other groups that you belong to: clan, tribe, nation, religion, and the Ummah. You may freely join groups such as clubs, political parties or you may find yourself a member of groups such as the school, the university, and the community mosque. Groups may be formal or informal. Most groups you belong to are informal and you may not even be aware of your membership. Groups can be defined according to social distance as in-group or out-group. A reference group is one that is accepted as a model. Group work involves people, objectives, and a situation. A collection of people with no common objective does not constitute a group. A group of people with a common objective may not constitute a group in certain circumstances; for example when members of a local football team attend Friday prayers in the mosque, they are not in the mosque as a group because the situation is different. Traditional society has small intimate groupings that gave people a sense of security. Industrial society is bringing about anonymity. The medical environment provides an opportunity to work in a multi-disciplinary highly trained team with its ethics, procedures, and culture. Group-work has its advantages and disadvantages; the advantages far out-weigh the disadvantages.
Advantages of group work: Members of groups enjoy the benefits of integration, stimulation, motivation, innovation, emotional support, and endurance. Group performance is generally superior to individual performance. Abundant exceptions do exist. Some highly productive people can not work in-groups. This should be accepted. Forcing them to work in groups will only lead to their frustration and that of the group. Experience throughout history has taught us that productivity and progress are a result of cumulating of hundreds or even thousands of individual efforts. Individual initiative is the backbone. Societies and systems that suppress individual initiative eventually fail. When we talk about group-work being superior we are actually saying that by coordinating, channeling, and complementing activities, as well as canceling contradictions an individual's productivity is higher in a team that outside a team. It is the individual's productivity and not that of the team that is the yardstick. A team of superior individual performers will itself be a superiorly performing team. On the other hand a team that is performing well as a team but has some members not performing to their full potential is essentially a weak team. A team that stifles the individual in the name of conformity will fail very rapidly. This concept of group-work parallels that of congregational prayer, salat al jamaat. An individual praying in a group gets a 27-fold reward he however still has to perform and take personal responsibility for results.
Disadvantages of group-work: The best is to work in groups but like all human endeavors it has its problems and disadvantages that we must be aware of and must guard against. Members of groups may suffer from the following. They may fall into the trap of group think when they start feeling that their group is invulnerable, knows, and can do anything. They may start feeling arrogant and moralize feeling that they are right and everybody else is wrong. The strong to maintain group cohesion may lead to a false feeling of unanimity when actually people disagree but just suppress their opinions in the interests of the group. There is pressure on every member to conform to the group norms even if individuals do not agree. Human history has recorded the plight of individuals who committed many mistakes in order to conform to the group when they knew they were doing wrong. The pressure on individuals to conform may reach the extent that opposing or different ideas are dismissed. This rapidly leads to destruction of creativity. Creative individuals with new ideas are not tolerated. Any dissent from the group norm is rejected. The biggest disadvantage of group work in my view is mis-match of members. Persons who do not share the same vision or who do not have compatible background experiences can not work together comfortably. Mismatch of group members leads to low group productivity and even intra-group conflict.
Group formation and break-up: There are three bases in the Law for group work: consensus, leadership, and co-operation. The consensus of the group is protected by Allah from error, al ijma ma'asum. Thus, a group is less likely to reach a wrong conclusion than an individual working alone. Humans must select and follow a leader for proper and purposeful conduct of their affairs; this means those followers must congregate in groups under a leader. The general directive of the Qur'an to believers to co-operate in doing good requires that people work in groups. Some groups are formed by individual choice. In some cases individuals find themselves put together by circumstances beyond their control. The health care team falls between these two ends of a spectrum; health care workers freely made the choice of the medical profession but they can not choose whom to work with in the ward, the clinic, or the operation theater. There are four stages in group formation. Groups and individuals that compose them go through various stages as they learn to work together. The four stages are: forming (acquaintance and learning to accept one another), storming (emotions and tensions), initial integration (start of normal functioning), total integration (full functioning), and dissolution. Mature groups develop a group identity and have optimized the following characteristics: feedback, decision-making procedures, cohesion, flexibility of organization, resource utilization, communication, clear goals accepted by members, interdependence, participation in leadership functions, and acceptance of minority views. Like everything in life groups are started, they grow and eventually break up. Some groups fail because they are constituted on the wrong basis. The members can not get along together, communicate with or understand one another. There is no commonality of interests, attitudes, and goals. In such a case individual effort will be preferable to a non-performing team. There are behavioral diseases that destroy groups. All of them have been described and have been defined by the Qur'an: hasad, nifaq, namiimah, gaybah, kadhb, riyah, kibriyah, hubb al riyasa, tajassus, and dhun al soo. Seeking personal credit for group work alienates and demotivates. Denying credit where it is due annoys and alienates.
Characteristics of the ideal group: Goals, culture, and norms: An ideal group follows the Qur'an and sunnat in all its activities. It has a common clear and inspiring goal to which the whole group and its individual members adhere. Having a common goal helps make the group result-oriented. The group has its distinctive culture and norms. The culture should reflect both underlying Islamic values and the nature of activity. The most important aspect of culture is to develop a spirit of brotherhood. Group work does not thrive in cultures that instill and encourage extreme individualism and competition. Group norms help improve interpersonal relations because expectations are clear. Each group must establish norms defining standards and acceptable behavior. People may adhere to abnormal group norms because of the need to belong. A strong desire to conform and achieve consensus may be detrimental to a group. Individual members may be reluctant to challenge wrong assumptions and conclusions of the group. This phenomenon is called groupthink.
Characteristics of the ideal group:: security: Members in the group must feel secure and not suppressed. They must know that they are accepted in the group as they are with their shortcomings and human weaknesses. They therefore will express their opinions freely, criticize, and accept criticism.
Characteristics of the ideal group: group dynamics: Understanding and sincere practice of group dynamics that are necessary for success of group work. Good communication and interaction are the bed-rock of positive group dynamics. Members must be interdependent, mutually influence one another, and have face-to-face communication. An ideal group should be solid like a building. Each member should be a brick holding the building together. Members must be loyal to group and to one another. It will develop a group spirit that puts group interests before individual interests. Members of the group may belong to several other groups. They may also have several different loyalties. However, these should never deviate from the teachings of Islam. Group feeling, asabiyyat, is a double-edged sword. In moderation it is positive in keeping the group together. In the extreme it pits the group against other groups and engenders conflict. It may reach a stage when truth, fairness, and justice are overlooked in order to maintain group solidarity. Asabiyyat that leads to giving member interests priority over the interests of Islam is strictly forbidden. Group members must trust one another and not fear that their colleagues will act or talk against them when they turn their back. A climate of collaboration and Cupertino in doing good must exist at all times. Group members must share their sorrow, happiness, failure, and success. Openness and no concealment of facts are the way of life for effective groups. An atmosphere of confidence, trust, and supportive of members.
Characteristics of the ideal group: performance. All members must be competent and committed to the group. They must take both group and personal responsibility for group activities. They must set and adhere to standards of excellence and superior performance levels. Only good planning, effective organization, and good use of human and material resources ensure superior performance. The members must understand group roles. There are several ways of cross classifying group roles. Group roles are of various types: expected, perceived, enacted, and assigned. Groups' roles may be group or individual ones. Group roles are either task roles (the roles that the group has to carry out) or building and maintenance roles (roles necessary to maintain the group. Group task roles include: initiating activities, managing activities, collecting and disseminating information, collection and discussion of opinions, reaching consensus, orientation, setting performance standards, implementation, evaluation, and control. Group maintenance roles include: encouraging, empowering, harmonizing, setting group norms, conflict resolution, communication, compromise). Some members in the group may play individual roles. These roles could be negative but in many cases, they may not be supportive of the group as a whole. Negative individual roles include: aggressor, blocker, recognition-seeking, player, and dominator, playing politics.
Characteristics of the ideal group: leadership: Every group must have a leader. Success of a group depends on the leader. The leader may be assigned or may emerge in the group and becomes accepted by the others. An ideal group leader should not be selected on the basis of expertise because he may use his power to stifle open discussion. A leader should be selected on the basis of effective leadership, ability to run meetings well, ability to make sure the work is done, and ability to hold the group together. Leaders form groups and delegate specific tasks to them. A very directive domineering group leader may not succeed in leading a performing group because he denies others participation. Group leadership must be principled. It must have a vision that is shared with all group members. It must encourage talent. The leadership must subject its ego to group interests. The leader must be able to identify conflicts early and resolve them. A major role for the leader is to manage conflict to maintain the unity and smooth functioning of the group. When goals, actions, and interests are incompatible, there is conflict. Conflicts may not always be negative. A group may learn from a conflict situation and emerge stronger. Poorly managed conflict situations may end with the break-up of the group.
GENERAL GROUP DYNAMICS
General duties and rights of brotherhood: The following are general rights of brotherhood that all members of the health care team owe to one another: returning greetings, following the funeral procession, accepting invitations, visiting the sick, and responding to sneezer. The following are additional duties: tolerance, forgiveness, helping the oppressed, solving problems, fulfilling needs, compassion and kindness, gratefulness, protecting the honor of others, fulfilling promises and commitments, respect, sincere advice or nasiiha. It is part of the duties of brotherhood to avoid underrating and humiliating others. It is considered part of good behavior to remove any annoyance from the public places, imatat al adha an al tariiq (KS p. 69). In general, everybody must behave with the best of manners, husn al khulq (KS p. 69).
Etiquette of inter-personal interaction: Greeting is necessary whenever members meet again even after a short separation. A small group will initiate greeting the larger group (MB#2057). The walking person initiates greeting the one sitting down (MB #2068). Everybody must be greeted whether known or not known (MB#2059). Those in an assembly must make room for any new comer (MB#2063). Two individuals should not engage in secret conversation in the presence of others (MB#2018) because that may create an impression of backbiting and suspicion. Standing up when a person enters is a sign of respect (KS 67). You should not force a sitting person from his seat (KS 67). When a person goes away for a temporary period, he has the right to reclaim his seat (KS 67). The following positive behaviors and attributes should be encouraged in the team: mutual love, tawadud, and empathetic caring for one another, rahmat & hilm (MB#2018, KS p. 68); leniency, rifq, in everything (KS p. 68); co-operation and mutual support, ta'awun (MB #2026); generosity, karam (MB #2028); truthfulness, sidq (MB #2039); patience, sabr (MB #2040); modesty, haya (MB #2043, 2044); cheerful disposition, imbisaat (MB #2045); calling people by their favourite names, ahabb al asma (MB #2055, 2056); recognising the rights and the position of those older than you, irfan haqq al kabir (KS p. 68); and self control in anger, malk al nafs inda al ghadhab (KS p. 68). The following negative attributes should be avoided: harshness in speech (MB #2029), rumour mongering, namiimat (MB #2032), excessive praise of others in their presence, al ghulw fi al thana (MB #2033, KS p. 68), mutual jealousy and turning away from other, tahasud & taba'ud (MB #2034 & 2035, KS p. 68), avoiding interaction with a colleague, hijrat, for more than 3 days following a misunderstanding (MB# 2038); anger, ghadhab (MB #2041); spying on the privacy of others, tatabu'u awrat al nas (KS p. 68); You should avoid repeating the same mistake twice (MB #2046). It is required not to volunteer information about your personal weaknesses, al satr ala al nafs (MB #2037, KS p. 98), unless it involves correcting a mistake related to the general medical work
Mobilize in groups: O you who believe! take your precautions, and either go forth in parties or go forth all together. Qur'an 4: 71
Secrecy/concealment destroys group: O you who believe ! when you hold secret counsel do it not for iniquity and hostility and disobedience to the Messenger; but do it for righteousness and self-restraint; and fear Allah, to whom you shall be brought back. Secret counsels are only ( inspired ) by the evil one, In order that he may cause grief to the believers but he cannot harm them in the least, except as Allah permits; and on Allah let the believers put their trust. Qur'an 58:9-10
Secret talks: In most of their secret talks there is no good; but if of one exhorts to a deed of charity or justice or conciliation between men, ( secrecy is permissible ) to him who does this, seeking the good pleasure of Allah, We shall soon give a reward of the highest ( value ). Qur'an 4: 114
Group must be solid: Truly Allah loves those who fight in his cause in battle array, as if they were a solid cemented structure. Qur'an 61:4
Co-operation in doing good: Help you not one another in sin and rancour: fear Allah: for Allah is strict in punishment. Qur'an 5:2
Muslims are protectors of one another in doing good work: The believers, men and women, are protectors, one of another they enjoin what is just, and forbid what is evil: they observe regular prayers, practice regular charity, and obey Allah and His Messenger. On them will Allah pour His Mercy: for Allah is exalted in power, Wise. Qur'an 9:71
Similarity is basis for group formation: "Narrated Aisha: I heard the Prophet ( may peace be upon him ) saying, " Souls are like recruited troops: Those who are of like qualities are inclined to each other, but those who have dissimilar qualities, differ". Bukhari 4:348, hadith #
Being one body: "Numan b Bashir reported Allah's Messenger ( may peace be upon him ) as saying: The similitude of believers in regard to mutual love, affection, fellow feeling is that of one body; when any limb of it aches, the whole body aches, because of sleeplessness and fever". Muslim 3: 1368, Chapter 1067, Hadith # 6258
Believers are like a building: "Narrated Abu Musa: The Prophet ( may peace be upon him ) said, " A believer to another believer is like a bulding whose different parts enforce each other." The Prophet then clasped his hands with the fingers interlaced. ( At that time ) the Prophet ( may peace be upon him ) was sitting and a man came and begged or asked for something. The Prophet ( may peace be upon him ) faced us and said, " Help and recommend him an dyou will receive reward for it, and Allah will bring about what He will through His Prophet's tongue". Bukhari 8:34, hadith # 55
You are with those you like: "Narrated Abdullah bin Masud: A man came to Allah's Apostle ( may peace be upon him ) and said, " O Allah's Apostle What do you say about a man who loves some people but cannot catch up with their good deeds?" Allah's Apostle said, " Everyone will be with those whom he loves" . Bukhari 8:122-123, hadith # 196
Seclusion is better than bad company: "Narrated Abu Said: I heard from the Prophet ( may peace be upon him ) saying. " There will come a time upon the people when the best property of a Muslim will be sheep which he will take to the tops of mountains and to the place of rainfall, run away with his religion ( in order to save it ) from afflictions". Bukhari 8:332, hadith # 502
Excellence of congregational prayers: "Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet ( may peace be upon him ) said: " The prayer offered in congregation is twenty five times more superior ( in reward ) to the prayer offered alone in one's house or in a business centre, because if one performs ablution and does it perfectly, and then proceeds to the mosque with the sole intention of praying, then for each step which he takes towards the mosque, Allah upgrades him a degree in reward and ( forgives ) crosses out one sin till he enters the mosque. When he enters the mosque he is considered in prayer as long as he is waiting for the prayer and the angels keep on asking for Allah's forgiveness for him and they keep on saying: O Allah! Be Merciful to him, O Allah! Forgive him, as long as he keeps on sitting at his praying place and does not pass wind. hadith No. 620" Bukhari 1:277, hadith # 466
Prayer in congregation 25 times better: "Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger ( may peace be upon him ) as saying: Prayer said in a congregation is twenty five degees more excellent than prayer said a single person". Muslim 1:314, Chapter 234, Hadith #1360 ….
"Narrated Abdullah b Umar: Allah's Apostle ( may peace be upon him ) said, " The prayer in congregation is twenty seven times superior to the prayer offered by a person alone". Bukhari 1:351, hadith # 618
No separation from group: "Abu Dharr reported the Apostle of Allah ( may peace be upon him ) as saying: He who separates from the community within a span takes off the noose of Islam from his neck" Abu Daud 3:1332, Chapter 1706, Hadith # 4740
Sharing in a group: "Narrated Abu Musa: The Prophet ( may peace be upon him ) " When the people of Ashari tribe ran short of food during the holy battles, or the food of their families in Medina ran short, they would collect all their remaining food in one sheet and then distribute it among themselves aqually by measuring it with a bowl. So, these people are from me, and I am from them". Bukhari 3:402, hadith # 666
Sharing at a time of scarcity: Narrated Jabir bin Abdullah: "Allah's Apostle sent an army towards the east coast and appointed Abd Ubaida bin Al-Jarrah as their chief, and the army consisted of three-hundred men including myself. We marched on till we reached a place where our food was about to finish. Abu Ubaida ordered us to collect all the journey food and it was collected. My (our) journey food was dates. Abu Ubaida kept on giving us our daily ration in small amounts from it, till it was exhausted. The share of everyone of us used to be one date only." I said, "How could one date benefit you?" Jabir replied, "We came to know its value when even that too finished." Jabir added, "When we reached the seashore, we saw a huge fish which was like a small mountain. The army ate from it for eighteen days. Then Abu Ubaida ordered that two of its ribs be fixed and they were fixed in the ground. Then he ordered that a she camel be ridden and it passed under the two ribs (forming an arch) without touching them." Bukhari 3:400-401, hadith # 663
Group maintenance: allowing some members to break norms will destroy group: Narrated An-Nu'man bin Bashir: The Prophet said, "The people of the person abiding by Allah's orders and restrictions in comparison to those who violate them is like the example of those persons who drew lots their seats in a boat. Some of them got seats in the upper part, and the others in the lower. When the latter needed water, they had to go up to bring water (and that troubled the others), so they said, "Let us make a hole in our share of the ship (and get water) saving those who are above us from troubling them. So, If the people in the upper part left the others do what they had suggested, all the people of the ship would be destroyed, but if they prevented them, both parties would be safe.". Bukhari 3:406, hadith # 673