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220816P - BASICS OF KNOWLEDGE and EPISTEMOLOGY

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Presented at the European Summer School on 16 August 2022 by Omar Hasan K Kasule Sr. MB ChB (MUK), MPH (Harvard), DrPH (Harvard) Professor of Epidemiology and Bioethics


1.0 DEFINITIONS OF KNOWLEDGE

  • The European definition of Knowledge: justified belief in a fact (wrong or right). However, some modern European thinkers insist on the belief being true[1]
  • The Islamic definition of knowledge: Knowledge (‘ilm) is true in contrast to lack of knowledge (jahl).
  • Degrees of knowledge based on certainty: ‘ayn al yaqeen (based on human observation) (102:7), haqq al yaqeen (truth behind observed reality) (56:95).  ‘ilm al yaqeen (knowledge of the highest grade) (102:5).
  • Progression in knowledge: (a) linguistic: French connaitre (acquaintance) to savoir (knowledge). (b) information science: raw data than information then knowledge than wisdom (hikmat) (c) deduction to induction (d) induction to theory.
  • Humans can have knowledge: The Qur’an asserted the existence of knowledge of divine sources (55:1-4). This debunks the epistemic skepticism about human knowledge.

2.0 QUR’ANIC TERMINOLOGY ABOUT KNOWLEDGE - 1
  • The Qur’an uses the following terminology to refer to knowledge: ‘ilm, ma’arifat[as a verb], hikmat, basiirat, ra’ay, dhann, yaqeen, tadhkirat, shu’ur, lubb, nabau, burhan, dirayat, haqq, and tasawwur [meaning conceptualization].
  • ‘Ilm is used for divine knowledge as a verb (2:187), as a noun (7:7), and as an adjective (6:73).
  • ‘Ilm is used for human knowledge as a verb (2:60), as a noun (2:32), and as an adjective (12:55)
  • Ma’arifat (lower than ‘ilm) is used only as a verb (12:58) indicating the acquisition of new information or reaffirming old information.
  • Yaqiin (15:9) is certainty and has 3 levels: ‘ayn al yaqiin (102:7), haqq al yaqiin (56:95), ‘ilm al yaqiin[102:5].
  • Tasawwur. Understanding is part of a conceptualization[2]

3.0 QUR’ANIC TERMINOLOGY ABOUT KNOWLEDGE - 2
  • Hikmat (2:151) is a higher level of knowledge above ‘ilm that interprets and uses factual information within a moral context and is both knowledge and understanding.
  • Basiirat (75:14) is a divinely guided use of the senses such that their perceptions are correct.
  • Ra’ay (11:27) is an opinion based on rational considerations; it may be right or it may be wrong.
  • Tadhkirat(20:3), remembrance or reminder, is needed to maintain knowledge.
  • Shu’ur(2:9).  is perception.
  • Lubb (2:197) is Intelligence or understanding.
  • Nabaa (2:31) Information/data is called nabaa.
  • Burhan (2:111) or Sultan (6:81) is proof or evidence.
  • Dirayat(31:34) is used to refer to knowing, informing, and understanding.
  • Haqq (3:60) is correct or valid knowledge. The term haqq is used with a moral connotation as the opposite of falsehood, baatil (2:42)

4.0 QUR’ANIC TERMINOLOGY ABOUT LACK OF KNOWLEDGE
  • The Qur’an uses several terms to indicate absolute or relative lack of knowledge: jahal, raib, dhann, shakk, and yaqeen.
  • The worst-case absolute lack of knowledge, jahal (2:273). is the opposite of ‘ilm.
  • Raib (9:45) is an unformulated doubt.
  • Shakk (11:62) is a formulated doubt being better than raib. In shakk there are several alternatives but the human does not have the ability to tell which of them is valid or true.
  • Dhann (53:28) has doubtful and uncertain knowledge that is higher than shakk.
  • Baatil (3:71) is used to refer to the falsehood with a moral connotation.

5.0 DEFINITION OF EPISTEMOLOGY (‘ILM al ‘ILM or the SCIENCE OF KNOWLEDGE)
  • European secular epistemology: Epistemology (derived from Greek  epistēmē, meaning 'knowledge', and logos meaning discourse) is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge: nature, justification, rationality or belief, sources, and related matters. It generally denies revelation as a source of knowledge. Its schools are empiricism (knowledge from sensory experience), rationalism (knowledge from reason), skepticism (questions the possibility of human knowledge), idealism (everything we know can be reduced to mental phenomena), etc.
  • Islamic divine epistemology (nadhariayyat al ma’arifat al islamiyat): the study of the sources of knowledge to reach the truth; the sources determine all other aspects of knowledge. Knowledge can be innate or acquired, useful or harmful, a priori or a posteriori. Human knowledge is limited (cannot know the unseen or the future with certainty). Integrated epistemology re-integrates wahy as a source of knowledge.

6.0 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
  • Primary sources of knowledge. Revelation (wahy) and empirical experience (tajribat) are primary sources of knowledge.  Reason (‘aql) is a secondary source that envelopes empirical knowledge because it provides the hypotheses and the interpretation of experimentation. As will be argued later in the paper the term ‘aql can cover both rational and empirical knowledge. In the Muslim experience reason as free philosophical speculation not related to empirical reality became jadal and caused a lot of confusion.
  • Doubtful sources of knowledge with no unanimity about their independent standing from the primary sources: ‘ilm laduniy(18:110), inspiration (ilham)(91:8), experiential intuition (hadas)(16:78), natural instinct (ghariizat, jabilliyat)[3],  physiognomy (firasat)(15:75)[4,5,6] dreams (ru’uyat)(12:5-7), and Sufi unveiling (kashf)[7].
  • Invalid sources of knowledge: magic & sorcery (sihr)(2:110, 7:126, 113:4); astrology (tanjiim)[Abudaud 11021]; divination, augury (kahaanat & tatayur)(69:42, 52:29, 36:19, 7:131, 27:47) and other forms of superstition.

7.0 EXTEMISM IS AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL PROBLEM
  • Extremism is the failure to use both sources of knowledge in a balanced way.
  • The literal understanding of the texts of naql and failure to see the space-time dimensions.
  • Out-of-context use of wahy or reason leading to extreme views.
  • Confusion of right vs wrong with true vs false or legal vs illegal.
  • Failure to appreciate that different sources/evidence can lead to multiple true conclusions.
  • Using a wrong source for a question for example looking for a moral solution from experimentation.
  • Solving a complex multi-faceted problem using one source narrowly.
  • Thinking of the action without the reactions or consequences.
  • Confusing what is old with what is right or true.
  • Looking for the simplest solution.
  • Failure to understand that a reasonable solution may lead to a result worse than the original problem.

  1. REFERENCES: Duncan Pritchard ‘The classical account of knowledge, which is the view that knowledge is justified true belief ‘ in Epistemology 2nd edition. page 27. First published 2016 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN London 2016.
  2. www.alukah.net بكر البغدادي فن التصور رقم ٦٨٩٦ لتاريخ ١٩-٣-٢٠١٥
  3. The instinctive animal behavior for example the bees is from Allah (Nahal:68-69). Humans have instincts to love of women, sons, and material things (Al Imran:14)
  4. Firaasat is knowing the inner hidden from the external obvious. Firaasat differs from suu al dhann in that it is based on external signs whereas suu al dhann starts with a negative emotion or feeling like jealousy that leads to negative conclusions. Firasat is based on empirical signs whereas ilham is automatic knowledge without any external medium. Firaasat unlike kahanat does not claim knowledge of the unseen
  5.  قال أبو الدرداد: اتقوا فراسة العلماء فانهم ينظرون بنور الله يقذفه الله في قلوبهم وعلي السنتهم. وقال رسول الله اتقوا فراسة المؤمن فانه ينظر بنور الله
  6.  قال ابن القيم: الفراسة الايمانية ..  نور يقذفه الله في قلب عبده يفرق به بين الحق والباطل والصادق والكاذب وهذه الفراسة علي حسب قوة الايمان وكان ابوبكر الصديق اعظم الامة فراسة
  7. The Sufi’s talk about knowledge of the heart that is above the intellect.