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Paper prepared by Prof. Omar Hasan Kasule Sr. MB ChB (MUK), MPH (Harvard) DrPH (Harvard) Chairman, Institutional Review Board - KFMC
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION:
• Chemistry deals with the structure and reactions of elements and compounds. Chemistry unlike physics operates at the level of the atom and is not concerned with sub-atomic particles. Chemistry tries to derive simple laws that explain the myriad reactions that occur in nature. Modern chemistry in addition to studying naturally existing substances involves a synthesis of new compounds every year that were unknown in nature before.
• Sub-disciplines of chemistry include: inorganic, physical, analytical, and biochemistry.
• Analytic chemistry is concerned with determining the constituents of a substance. The methods used may be qualitative or quantitative. Inorganic chemistry studies substances not associated with life and generally not containing carbon.
• Organic chemistry studies substances that contain carbon and are related to life. It isolates and determines the composition and structure of these compounds. Molecules can be designed with pre-determined properties.
• Biochemistry studies the molecular basis of life by studying chemical reactions in living organisms. Polymer chemistry deals with the synthesis of large molecules of industrial use.
• Physical chemistry deals with quantitative aspects of chemical reactions. It derives and tests laws and formulas describing these reactions.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND - 1:
• Aristotle believed that all matter was made of 4 elements: earth, water, air, and fire. The order of the elements was fire, air, water, and earth. The elements are found in every substance and can be transmuted from one another. Motion occurs when an element tries to return to its order. The word atom (meaning unable to cut) was first used by the Greek scientist Democritus about 2500 years ago.
• The beginnings of chemistry were in alchemy, metallurgy, and medicine. Alchemy was an attempt to convert base metals like copper or lead into silver or gold. It also had magical, superstitious, and spiritual dimensions. Alchemists heated mixtures of substances in the hope of transmuting them into valuable metals. In the process, they discovered and described many chemical phenomena.
• Alchemy was practiced by ancient Chinese, Indians, Greeks, and Muslims. Among Muslim alchemists were al Razi (850-923/924 N), Jabir Ibn Hayyaan. Muslim alchemy like medicine found its way into Europe through Spain and Sicily. To the original goal of transmuting metals were added new objectives of producing elixirs of immortality and medicines. The attempt to make gold was not given up until the 18th century. Alchemy continued to be practiced as hermetism (spiritual alchemy) and chemistry developed as an independent discipline.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND - 2:
• The 17th century was concerned with investigations of gases and combustion. Antoine Lavoisier proposed the theory of combustion based on oxygen and overthrew the phlogiston theory which has assumed that combustion was due to the release of phlogiston from the burning substance. At the same time elements were understood to be different from compounds.
• In the 19th century, the chemical atomic theory was developed. It asserted that chemical reactions involved combinations of atoms in fixed proportions. The concept of atomic weight was developed. The atomic weights of elements were determined and the periodic table of elements was developed arranging elements in order of their atomic numbers in groups that corresponded to their chemical properties.
• Application of quantum mechanics enabled further understanding of forces that hold atoms together. A series of shells of electrons around the nucleus was postulated each with electrons at a certain energy level. The attractive forces between atoms (ionic or covalent) would be explained by the number of electrons in the outermost shells that determine the valence.
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PARADIGMS - 1:
• Chemistry deals with the structure of matter, changes in the states of matter, combinations of various forms of matter, and properties of various combinations.
• Chemical reactions involve the making or breaking of bonds. Spontaneous chemical reactions release energy. Other reactions require activation energy from a catalyst. Enzymes are biological catalysts that decrease the activation energy of chemical reactions.
• Elements cannot be broken down into smaller substances by ordinary chemical methods and are therefore considered the basic building blocks of chemical substances. Elements combine with one another to form compounds.
• Chemical properties of elements are determined by the arrangement of electrons, especially in the outer shell.
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND PARADIGMS - 2:
• The fusion of 2 hydrogen atoms to produce helium is responsible for the energy output of the sun. The fusion of helium in various combinations produces all the other elements however these reactions require energy input in the form of heat at very high temperatures.
• The chemical composition of the earth and oceans can be studied directly. The chemical composition of bodies in space is studied by spectrometry. The chemical composition of the earth, the sun, and the moon seems to be similar indicating common creation. The chemical composition of various continents is remarkably similar.
• The earth can be visualized as 5 layers starting from outside: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the crust, the mantle, and the core. The crust is made up of 8 dominant elements: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, sodium, and potassium. Elements that are abundant may not be available for human use.
RESEARCH METHODS:
• Properties of a substance are determined by its structure. Atoms are held together by ionic and covalent bonds. Chemical reactions involve absorption (endothermic) and release of energy (exothermic). They conform to the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Energy changes associated with chemical reactions can be calculated.
• Chemical reactions involve changes in entropy (disorder). Entropy is zero at absolute zero temperature in accord with the third law of thermodynamics. Entropy increases with temperature. In spontaneous chemical reactions, the total entropy of the reactants and the environment increases but the total energy remains the same following the law of conservation of energy.
• Rates of chemical reactions are affected by the quantities of the reactants, the temperature, and the activation energy required. Catalysts speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy. Products of chemical reactions contribute to environmental pollution.
ISLAMIC EPISTEMOLOGICAL CRITIQUE:
ISLAMIC INTRODUCTION TO THE DISCIPLINE: