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Editorial for the Journal of the Islamic Medical Association of North America 25th January 2010 byofessor Omar Hasan Kasule Sr MB ChB (MUK), MPH (Harvard), DrPH (Harvard) Professor King Fahad Medical College Riyadh, Professor of Epidemiology and Islamic Medicine University of Brunei, and Visiting Professor of Epidemiology University of Malaya
This short editorial will highlight 3 aspects of knowledge from an Islamic perspective: the nature of knowledge, sources of knowledge, and limitations of human knowledge.
Knowledge occupies an exalted position in Islam. Those who know occupy a higher position than those who do not know[1]. There are three grades of knowledge depending on accuracy and validity. The truth behind reality is called haqq al yaqeen[2] and represents the highest level of knowledge. Knowledge that is certain with no doubts and that represents finality is called 'Ilm al yaqeen[3]. Knowledge that is empirical but is of lesser degree since it is based on observation by human senses that are not perfect is called 'ayn al yaqeen[4].
The Qur'an puts great emphasis on evidence-based knowledge and always challenges those who make claims or allegations to produce their evidence[5]. The story of Ibrahim (PBUH)[6] illustrates the significance of evidence-based empirical knowledge. Ibrahim (PBUH) knew and believed from revealed knowledge that Allah resurrected the dead. He, however, asked Allah to show him how the dead were resurrected not out of weak faith but because being human he could understand and internalize knowledge that comes from empirical observation. Allah ordered him to carry out an experiment and to observe the phenomenon of resurrection for himself. Thus empirical knowledge extended and reaffirmed revealed knowledge.
Human knowledge is potentially wide and is continuously expanding[7]. The limit of knowledge is with Allah. An individual or community can only know a little bit of the knowledge and must have the humility to know and acknowledge that there is a lot that is not known. There is a difference in knowledge (quantity and quality) among humans as individuals and as communities. Some humans know more than others. Many do not know[8]. The Qur'an describes some individuals as possessing very deep knowledge[9].
It is a cardinal principle of Islam that all knowledge is ultimately from Allah[10]. Humans can get it in a passive way from revelations or in an active way by empirical observation and experimentation. Revelation, wahy, inference, ‘aql, and empirical observation of the universe, kaun, are major sources of acquired knowledge. Humans throughout history have quenched their thirst for knowledge from all the three sources. In terms of quantity, empirical knowledge, ‘ilm tajriibi, comes first. In terms of quality revealed knowledge, ‘ilm al wahy, comes first. There is close interaction and inter-dependence between revelation, inference, and empirical observation. ‘Aql is needed to understand wahy and reach conclusions from empirical observations. Wahy protects ‘aql from mistakes and provides it with information about the unseen. ‘Aql can not, unaided, fully understand the empirical world.
Revelation is true, relevant and essential knowledge. In addition to providing facts, it also provides a methodology that can be used by other sources of knowledge. Most empirical knowledge is from observation and experimentation. Revelation provides general principles that guide and regulate empirical observations. Knowledge by revelation reaches humans only through prophets and messengers[11]. Ordinary humans can not receive revealed knowledge on their own. Knowledge of the past and the future is best obtained from revelation because empirical observation is limited in the time dimension. Humans can extrapolate from existing knowledge to predict the future but can never be sure. Archeology for example is an empirical observation of the past but is limited because with time the artifacts become changed and distorted. Even if not distorted they may not be interpreted correctly. The new discipline of futuristic studies relies on extrapolation from present-day trends. Its results can not be conclusive.
The universe or cosmos around humans, al kaun, is a source of knowledge. Allah gave humans senses to enable them get empirical knowledge from their environment[12]. The concept of causality, sababiyyat, underlies most knowledge obtained by empirical observation. Simply stated this concept asserts that there is a material cause for every physical event that a human observes. He may be or not be aware of the cause but can not deny its existence.
Intellect, ‘aql, distinguishes humans from other living things on earth. It enables them to understand and correctly interpret the sensory perceptions of the signs of Allah in the universe and thus leads to stronger faith. Intellect is so important that its misuse or under-use are severely condemned by the Qur’an[13]. Intellect can be a primary source of knowledge in a few instances like mathematical knowledge. In most cases the intellect is not in itself a primary source of knowledge. It is a tool that enables humans to generate deeper knowledge and understanding from the primary sources: revelation and empirical observation. 'Aql can be looked at as a series of intellectual processes that Allah has endowed the human with.
The Qur’an has used several terms to describe intellectual processes. Thinking, tafakkur, is the most popular. It is noteworthy that the Qur'an links thinking with a form of empirical observation using the human senses. Thinking can be by visual observation of the cosmos[14]. Humans are enjoined to think about the Qur'an[15], creation[16], and signs of Allah in the universe[17]. The thinking process can be extended backward in time by thinking about history and the lessons garnered from it[18].
Innate knowledge is inborn. Acquired knowledge is obtained post natally. Knowledge of good and bad is innate in humans but they can be confused and may need acquired knowledge to guide them in the gray areas. Acquired knowledge can be from revelation or from empirical observation. These two sources of knowledge reinforce the innate knowledge as well as reinforce each other. A good example is the prohibition of usury. A human should innately know that usury is a distress and an injustice for the poor because they take loans at prohibitive interest rates but they have no alternative. On the other hand the loan givers gain interest income without any effort. Both the lenders and borrowers may not consciously be aware of the injustice of usury because of overwhelming practical and practical considerations of the moment. The role of revealed knowledge is to point it out the injustice of usury reinforcing the innate knowledge. Empirical observation of the inherent injustice between lenders and borrowers, whether as individuals, companies, or countries, again reinforces the appreciation of the sense of injustice in usurious transactions.
Knowledge can be classified as knowledge of the seen, ‘ilm al shahadat, and knowledge of the unseen, ‘ilm al ghaib. Humans know only the seen; they do not know the unseen[19]. The unseen can be absolute, ghaib mutlaq, or relative, ghaib nisbi. Humans cannot in any way know ghaib mutlaq except through revelation. Ghaib nisbi is something that is knowable by humans by taking certain measures. For example the contents of a closed box are unseen by a human but when the box is opened, the contents can become known. It is however shirk for a human to claim with certainty and affirmatively to know the contents of a closed box if he has no evidence through the senses. The Qur'an has given examples of ghaib mutlaq as knowledge of the soul, ruh[20], knowledge of the last day[21] and knowledge of the time of death[22]. Any knowledge related to empirical observation can be ghaib nisbi. The relative, ghaib nisbi, can be known by some people in favorable time and space circumstances and not others or can be known if special and appropriate instrumentation is used. The whole purpose of scientific research is to roll back the field of ghaib nisbi. Ghaib nisbi can be contemporaneous i.e. things that exist at the moment but which are unknown, past or historical events, or future events.
The Qur'an in many verses has reminded humans that their knowledge in all spheres and disciplines of knowledge is limited[23]. Allah allows humans to know some things and not others. Humans do not normally reach the full capacity of knowledge because of other limitations. One of these limitations is failure to exert themselves to the maximum in the search for knowledge. Human senses can be easily deceived. Human vision is limited. Human senses of hearing, smelling, tasting are relatively insensitive and some animals have more acute senses. Human intellect has limitations in interpreting correct sensory perceptions. There are basic limitations in the neuro-chemical functions in the brain. Humans also have a limited data-base of prior knowledge to be able to interpret all new knowledge correctly.
Notes
[1] Qur'an 58:11
[2] Qur'an 56:95, 69:51
[3] Qur'an 102:5
[4] Qur'an 102:7
[5] Qur'an 2:111
[6] Qur'an 2:260
[7] Qur'an 18:109, 31:27
[8] Qur'an 7:131, 8:34, 10:55, 12:21, 12:40, 12:68
[9] Qur'an 4:162
[10] Qur'an 2:31-32
[11] Qur'an 2:1292:151, 3:164,
[12] Qur'an 16:78
[13] Qur'an 2:170-171, 3:65
[14] Qur'an 7:185, 10:101, 29:20
[15] Qur'an 4:82, 38:29, 47:24
[16] Qur'an 2:164, 3;190-191
[17] Qur'an 10:24
[18] Qur'an 3:137
[19] Qur'an 27:65
[20] Qur'an 17:85
[21] Qur'an 7:187-188
[22] Qur'an 31:34
[23] Qur'an 2:232, 3:66