990221P - PROPHETIC MEDICINE: BETWEEN THE NASS AND EMPIRICAL EXPERIENCE

Paper presented by Prof Dr Omar Hasan Kasule of the Kulliyah of Medicine, International Islamic University, Malaysia at the 3^rd International Seminar on the 'Medical Curriculum: The Holistic Approach'  19-21 February 1999, jointly sponsored by the Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (PPIM), Federation of Islamic Medical Associations (FIMA), and the International Islamic University, Malaysia.

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PROPHETIC MEDICINE

Definition: Tibb Nabawi refers to words and actions of the Prophet with a bearing on disease, treatment of disease, and care of patients.  Thus also included are words of the prophet on medical matters, medical treatment practiced by others on the prophet, medical treatments practised by the prophet on himself and others, medical treatments observed by the prophet with no objections, medical procedures that the prophet heard or knew about and did not prohibit, or medical practices that were so common that the prophet could not have failed to know about them.  The prophet's medical teachings were specific for place, population, and time. They however also included general guidance on physical and mental health that are applicable to all places, all times, and all circumstances. Tibb nabawi is not one monolithic or systematic medical system as some people would want us to believe. It is varied and circumstantial. It covers preventive medicine, curative medicine, mental well-being, spiritual cures or ruqyah, medical and surgical treatments. It integrates mind & body, matter and spirit.

Search for cures: The Prophet enunciated a basic principle in medicine that for every disease there is cure (ma anzala allahu daa; illa anzala lahu shifa'a- Kitaab al Tibb, al Bukhari).  This is an impetus for us to look for remedies. Thus the prophetic medical tradition does not stop at only the medical teachings of the prophet but goes beyond to encourage humans to search and experiment with new treatment modalities. This implies among other things that prophetic medicine is not static. There is room for growth and even breaking new ground. Other implications of this hadith is that seeking treatment does not contradict qadar (pre-destination). Thus both the disease and its treatment are part of qadar.

Sources of tibb nabawi: Tibb nabawi has several sources: revelation  (wahy), empirical experience of the prophet, folk medicine of that time in the Arabian peninsula, and it is possible that some medical knowledge of other communities could have been known in Makka or Madina at the time of the prophet. Our sources are from books of hadith and siira.  Bukhari in his Sahih narrated 129 hadiths directly related to medicine. He devoted two books to medicine: kitaab al tibb and kitaab al mardha There are many other hadiths in Bukhari indirectly related to medicine. Other books of hadith also narrate more hadiths with relevance to medicine. Scholars have collected these hadiths together and some have related them to available medical knowledge. Among these authors are: Abu Nu’aim (d. 430 AH),  Ibn  Qayyim al Jawziyat (d. 751 AH), and Jalaluddin al Suyuti  (d. 911 AH). There are also more recent writings as articles and books. In his book, A Tibb al Nabawi, Imaam Ibn al Qayim mentions many medical conditions for which the Prophet provided guidance.  He interpreted the hadiths using the available medical knowledge of his day. This book needs rewriting and it will look very different if written interpreting the prophetic traditions using today's medical knowledge.

Scope of tibb nabawi: Tibb Nabawi as reported to us did not cover every conceivable disease at the time of the Prophet neither can it cover all ailments today or in the future in various parts of the world.  This is easy to understand from the context that although the Prophet practiced medicine, his mission was not medicine and he was not a full-time physician.  The hadiths of the Prophet should not be looked at as a textbook of medicine.  They should be used for the diseases that they dealt with.  The proper way to get additional medical knowledge is through research and looking for signs of Allah in the universe (2:164, 3:190, 10:5-6, 30:20-27, 39:59, 51:20-23).

Classification of tibb nabawi: The classification of traditions relating to medicine depends on the state of knowledge and changes with time and place. Jalaluddin al Suyuti published a book on tibb nabawi and divided medicine into 3 types: traditional, spiritual and preventive. Most of tibb nabawi is preventive medicine which is a very advanced concept given the level of scientific knowledge at the prophet's time and certainly must have been divinely inspired. Al Suyuti (1994) listed preventive medical measures such as food and exercise. Other preventive measures taught in hadith include: quarantine for epidemics (hijr sihhi), forbidding urination in stagnant water (bawl fi mai raqid), use of tooth stick (siwaak), precautions in the house at night: fire & pests, leaving a country because of its water and climate. Study of tibb nabawi reveals that there are spiritual aspects of healing and recovery. Prayer, dua, recitation of the Qur’an, and remembrance of Allah play a central role.  Psychosomatic diseases could respond to spiritual approaches. Curative medicine involved prophetic teachings about treatment of wounds, use of honey and the black seed for several ailments. The use of ruqyat (surat al fatiha, al mu’awadhatain) falls between physical curative and spiritual. The curative part of ruqyat can be understood in modern terms in the way the psyche can modulate immune mechanisms that protect against disease,

Examples of tibb nabawi: Ibn Qayim al Jawziyat listed many diseases with their recommended treatments from tibb nabawi. Diseases in tibb nabawi treatable by natural remedies: fever (humma), bowel movements (istitlaq al batan), dropsy (istisqa), wounds (jarh), epilepsy (sar’a), sciatica (‘irq al nisa), temparaments (tabau’), skin itch (hakk al jism), pleurisy (dhaat al janb), headache and hemicrania (sidau and shaqiiqat), inflammation of the throat (‘adhrat), enlargement of the heart (al maf’uud), ophthalmia (al ramad), catalepsy (khudran al kulli), pimples (bathrat), skin eruptions (awraam), food poisoning (summ), witchcraft (sihr), and head lice. He also mentioned other diseases like: plague, leprosy, eye diseases, throat and tonsils, diarrhea, abdominal disease, fever, plague, snake bite, scorpion bite, food contamination by a fly, headache, nose bleeds, teeth, cough, dropsy, sprain, fracture, bite by rabid dog, and the evil eye. There are three therapeutic modalities used in Prophetic medicine: natural, spiritual, mixture of natural and spiritual. The treatments mentioned were honey (al 'asal), cold water for fever (al mau al barid), diet (ghadha), milk (al laban), camel milk, camel urine, cupping (al hijaam), cauterization (al kayy), venesection with cauterization (qatiu al uruuq wa al kayy). The black seed (al habba al sauda) was especially emphasised.

APPLICATION OT TIBB NABAWI TODAY

General considerations: There are 3 aspects that we have to deal with regarding modern application of tibb nabawi. (a) is tibb nabawi part of the sharia and is therefore compulsory? (b) spatio-temporal changes (c) empirical research on tibb nabawi.

Tibb nabawi as part of the shariat: A correct answer to this question requires clarifying the very concept of shariat. The regulations about salat, menstruation, and toilet hygiene are part of the shariat rules that are immutable and there is no dispute about them. There are other regulations about the government (ahkam sultaniyat) that are part of the shariat but that change with circumstances. We can therefore distinguish two parts of the shariat: (a) fixed and immutable and applicable to all places and times and (b) fixed general principles whose details of application change with place and time. If we take the meaning of shariat in (b) above we can conclude that prophetic medicine is part of Islamic shariat that can change and grow using ijtihad and empirical research to apply general shariat principles to changing circumstances.

Spatio-temporal changes: Whatever the Prophet said or did was valid and must be followed because he never uttered any untruth even when joking. The ijtihad of the prophet even in worldly matters was protected (ma'suum). The Qur'an and hadith have records of divine intervention to comment on the prophet's ijtihad on worldy matters such his advice on some aspects of agriculture that he later withdrew. Thus the record of authentic hadith that we have is valid whether in 'aqidat or worldly matters.  The attempt to distinguish between the medical teachings of the prophet-messenger and as a human living in Arabia at a particular historical epoch is not easy and is of no practical significance.  The question is whether all or some of the tibb nabawi should be used today.  If the diagnosis of a disease and all the circumstances surrounding it are exactly like those at the time of the Prophet, then we have no hesitation in saying tibb nabawi should be used. In actual practice it is difficult to ascertain that the conditions are the same.  Changes in disease pathology, changes in the genetic pool of the patients, changes in the genetic pool of the medicinal plants, weather and climatic conditions are among many variables that may make a particular remedy recommended by the Prophet not appropriate for a medical condition today. The circumstances of time and place have changed. Indiscriminate use of the historical remedies could be using the right drug for the wrong disease. There is even a more serious linguistic problem. The meaning of words has changed. What was called fever in the 1^st century AH may not be the same as the meaning of the same world today. Even medicinal plants like the black seed may not be exactly the same plant. We can therefore conclude that the teachings of tibb nabawi can only be a foundation to guide and encourage scientific research for remedies that are suitable for our times.

Empirical research on tibb nabawi: There is a lot of scientific interest in prophetic teachings on medicine. In Egypt for example many institutions are involved in research on traditional remedies: universities, the National Research Center, the Desert Institute, and the Horticultural Department of the Ministry of Agriculture. Many medicinal plants including the black seed have been investigated extensively and have been commercialised (Sayed 1980). The black seed (nigella sativa)  is an example of a prophetic remedy that has been studied extensively by both Muslims and non-Muslims. Animal research has shown that the black seed is a potent anti-hypertensive (Tahir et al. 1993) and respiratory stimulant (Tahir at al 1993). It was shown to act against bacterial infection in mice (Hanafy et al. 1991). Al-Awadi et al (1991) studied the effect of a plant mixture including black seed on liver gluconeogenesis in rats with induced diabetes. Salomi et al (1991) studied the inhibitory effects of the black seed on chemical carcinogenesis in rats. Nair et al (1991) studied the modulatory effect of the black seed on toxicity in rats induced by a cis-platinum, a cancer treatment drug. Keshri et al (1995) studied the post-coital contraceptive effects of the black seed in rats. El-Dakhakhny (1965) studied the pharmacological properties of the black seed. Toppozada et al (1965) studied the antibacterial properties of the black seed with clinical applications. El-Fattary (1975) isolated and described the anti-bacterial principles from the black seed. Chakravarty (1993) studied the inhibition of histamine release from mast cells by the black seed. Salomi et al (1992) studied the anti-tumor activity of the black seed. Human studies of the black seed have also been undertaken. Akhtar et al (1991) studied the effect of the black seed on nematode worm infection in children. Haq et al (1995) studied the effect of the black seed on human lymphocytes and polymorphonuclear leucocyte phagocytic activity. Laboratory studies provided scientific support for the traditional use of the black seed and its derived products As a treatment for rheumatism and related inflammatory diseases (Houghton et al 1995). The study of the black seed as a medicine has even extended to its side effects since no medicine however useful is free from side effects. Steinmann et al (1997) recorded occurrence of contact dermatitis after topical use of the black seed. Tennekoon et al. (1991) studied the possible hepato-toxicity of the black seed.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE CHALLENGES

From the survey above we can conclude that tibb nabawi is an authentic and valid medical system. The general principles of this system are applicable at all times and all places. The specific remedies taught by the Prophet (PBUH) are valid and useful. They however can not be used today without undertaking further empirical research because of changes in humans, medicinal plants, the environment, and meanings of linguistic terms. Thus the conditions for which these remedies were prescribed in the 1^st century of hijra may not be exactly the same as the conditions we are dealing with today. The many empirical studies on prophetic remedies like the black seed promise a good future for prophetic medicine to continue exerting its influence on medical practice.

REFERENCES

Sahih al Bukhari

Ibn  Al Qayyim Al Jawziyyah: al Tibb al Nabawi

Abu  Naim Al Asfahani: al Tibb al Nabawi

Al Hafidh Abi Abdillah Muhammad Bin Ahmad Al Dhahabi: al Tibb al Nabawi

Jalaluddin al Suyuti: al Tibb al Nabawi

el-Tahir-KE; Ashour-MM; al-Harbi-MM: The cardiovascular actions of the volatile oil of the black seed (Nigella sativa) in rats: elucidation of the mechanism of action. Gen-Pharmacol. 1993 Sep; 24(5): 1123-31

el-Tahir-KE; Ashour-MM; al-Harbi-MM: The respiratory effects of the volatile oil of the black seed (Nigella sativa) in guinea-pigs: elucidation of the mechanism(s) of action. Gen-Pharmacol. 1993 Sep; 24(5): 1115-22

Hanafy-MS; Hatem-ME: Studies on the antimicrobial activity of Nigella sativa seed (black cumin). J-Ethnopharmacol. 1991 Sep; 34(2-3): 275-8

Sayed-MD: Traditional medicine in health care. J-Ethnopharmacol. 1980 Mar; 2(1): 19-22

el-Dakhakhny-M: Studies on the Egyptian Nigella sativa L. IV. Some pharmacological properties of the seeds' active principle in comparison to its dihydro compound and its polymer. Arzneimittelforschung. 1965 Oct; 15(10): 1227-9

Toppozada-HH; Mazloum-HA; el-Dakhakhny-M: The antibacterial properties of the Nigella sativa l. seeds. Active principle with some clinical applications. J-Egypt-Med-Assoc. 1965; 48: Suppl:187-202

Aqel-M; Shaheen-R: Effects of the volatile oil of Nigella sativa seeds on the uterine smooth muscle of rat and guinea pig.

El-Fatatry-HM: Isolation and structure assignment of an antimicrobial principle from the volatile oil of Nigella sativa L. seeds. Pharmazie. 1975 Feb; 30(2): 109-11

Steinmann-A; Schatzle-M; Agathos-M; Breit-R: Allergic contact dermatitis from black cumin (Nigella sativa) oil after topical use. Contact-Dermatitis. 1997 May; 36(5): 268-9

al-Awadi-F; Fatania-H; Shamte-U:The effect of a plants mixture extract on liver gluconeogenesis in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Diabetes-Res. 1991 Dec; 18(4): 163-8

Tennekoon-KH; Jeevathayaparan-S; Kurukulasooriya-AP; Karunanayake-EH: Possible hepatotoxicity of Nigella sativa seeds and Dregea volubilis leaves. J-Ethnopharmacol. 1991 Mar; 31(3): 283-9

Hanafy-MS; Hatem-ME: Studies on the antimicrobial activity of Nigella sativa seed (black cumin). J-Ethnopharmacol. 1991 Sep; 34(2-3): 275-8

Akhtar-MS; Riffat-S: Field trial of Saussurea lappa roots against nematodes and Nigella sativa seeds against cestodes in children. JPMA-J-Pak-Med-Assoc. 1991 Aug; 41(8): 185-7

Salomi-MJ; Nair-SC; Panikkar-KR Inhibitory effects of Nigella sativa and saffron (Crocus sativus) on chemical carcinogenesis in mice. Nutr-Cancer. 1991; 16(1): 67-72

Nair-SC; Salomi-MJ; Panikkar-B; Panikkar-KR: Modulatory effects of Crocus sativus and Nigella sativa extracts on cisplatin-induced toxicity in mice. J-Ethnopharmacol. 1991 Jan; 31(1): 75-83

Haq-A; Abdullatif-M; Lobo-PI; Khabar-KS; Sheth-KV; al-Sedairy-ST: Nigella sativa: effect on human lymphocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocyte phagocytic activity. Immunopharmacology. 1995 Aug;

Keshri-G; Singh-MM; Lakshmi-V; Kamboj-VP: Post-coital contraceptive efficacy of the seeds of Nigella sativa in rats. Indian-J-Physiol-Pharmacol. 1995 Jan; 39(1): 59-62

Houghton-PJ; Zarka-R; de-las-Heras-B; Hoult-JR: Fixed oil of Nigella sativa and derived thymoquinone inhibit eicosanoid generation in leukocytes and membrane lipid peroxidation. Planta-Med. 1995 Feb; 61(1): 33-6

Chakravarty-N: Inhibition of histamine release from mast cells by nigellone. Ann-Allergy. 1993 Mar; 70(3): 237-42

el-Tahir-KE; Ashour-MM; al-Harbi-MM: The cardiovascular actions of the volatile oil of the black seed (Nigella sativa) in rats: elucidation of the mechanism of action. Gen-Pharmacol. 1993 Sep; 24(5): 1123-31

el-Tahir-KE; Ashour-MM; al-Harbi-MM: The respiratory effects of the volatile oil of the black seed (Nigella sativa) in guinea-pigs: elucidation of the mechanism(s) of action. Gen-Pharmacol. 1993 Sep; 24(5): 1115-22

Salomi-NJ; Nair-SC; Jayawardhanan-KK; Varghese-CD; Panikkar-KR: Antitumour principles from Nigella sativa seeds. Cancer-Lett. 1992 Mar 31; 63(1): 41-6.

990619L - ISLAMIC MEDICINE: ITS MEANING AND PRINCIPLES

Lecture to 1^st year medical students at the Kulliyah of Medicine, International Islamic University, Kuantan on 19^th June 1999 by Prof Dr Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr.

1.0 DEFINITION OF ISLAMIC MEDICINE: A PROBLEM

The concept of Islamic Medicine is still elusive after more than 2 decades of inquiry about the matter. It has meant many things to different people. The 1^st International Conference on International Medicine held in Kuwait debated two approaches to the definition: (a) concept of revival of ancient Muslim medicine and the (b) the concept of applying Islamic values and paradigms to any type of medicine thereby Islamising it (52). Subsequent seminars and publications in Kuwait delved deeper into the issue (44, 45, 46). Two seminars were held in Malaysia with the involvement of the Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia to debate the issue in July 1995 and 1997 (52, 33). We will review various views of Islamic medicine and conclude by giving what we feel is the most appropriate definition.

2.0 TRADITIONAL OR ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

The debate on the definition of Islamic medicine has been blown off course in 2 unhealthy ways. Some persons who have no medical training have claimed to practise the so-called Islamic medicine as an alternative to western medicine. The Islamic sentiments of the masses as well as disenchantment with systems of medical care have turned many towards this alternative form of medicine. Our experience with practitioners of this medicine is that they are are pursuing narrow interests. Not only do they provide medicine and other forms of physical therapy buy they also sometimes get involved in superstitious practices that contradict the tauhidi creed of Islam. A second way in which this debate has become unhealthy is when it is politicised and it becomes an issue of cultural or ‘medical’ nationalism, both concepts being alien to Islam. The argument goes like this: if westerners have scientific medicine provided at government hospitals, then Africans or other ethnicities should also have their own traditional medicine that must be defended against the encroachment of western medicine. Islam came to break down barriers of prejudice and build one universal brotherhood under which all parochial interests would be buried. Islam therefore does not accept a dichotomy in medicine depending on who developed it. All medicine is judged on its usefulness, effectiveness, and lack of harmful effects. All effective and useful medical systems either in toto or in parts are accepted by Muslims and they are loathe to attach nationalistic labels to them.

3.0 MEDICINE OF THE EARLY MUSLIM SOCIETY

Starting with the advent of the 15^th century of hegira that coincided with major political and social upheavels in the ummat (Iranian revolution, Afghan jihad, islamisation in Pakistan under the late Zia al Haqq), there was increased pride in the achievements of the Islamic civilisation in all fields including medicine. A major proportion of the papers at the 1^st and 2^nd International Conferences on Islamic Medicine in Kuwait in 1981 and 1982 respectively was devoted to history (6). Special seminars either free-standing or as part of medical conferences have been devoted to the memory of early Muslim physicians such as Ibn Nafees, al Zahrawi, and others (6,18). Some of the authors demand justice for Muslim contribution to western medicine that the west has ignored (14, 63, 64, 70). Some claims of early Muslim contributions are exaggerated such as saying that al Zahrawi was the first surgeon in the world (21).

The medicine practised by Muslims in the golden era of Islamic civilization has been looked at by some as the ideal of Islamic medicine. Islamic medicine was defined by Syed Hosein Nasr and others (16, 64) as the historical achievements. The historical theme has continues to fascinate all Muslim physicians who write on Islamic medicine and reading through their literature one is drawn to the inevitable conclusion that history is both an inspiration and a challenge to the present generation (14). Arguments have been advanced that the historical perpsective can not on its own define an Islamic paradigm of medicine (52). It could actually be utilised in a negative way as a psychological defense mechanism to rationalise failure of the contemporary generation to achieve what the ancients did. It is also an issue open to debate whether all what was achieved historically can be termed Islamic medicine. Humans and circumstances were not always in  conformity with the broad vision of Islam. The ownership of such medicine is also debatable. Muslims learned it from the Greeks and they improved it. In India they did not even change its name and continued calling it tibb unani (Arabic for Greek medicine). Claiming that such medicine represents the Islamic ideal in medicine can therefore not be supported.

There have been efforts to revive traditional Muslim medicine in a new form by carrying out scientific studies including double-blind controlled clinical studies to show its therapeutic effectiveness and also study other aspects relating to its pharmacology. The 1^st and 2^nd International Conferences on Islamic Medicine devoted a lot of time to revival of old remedies with a lot of optimism for the future (6). The Hamdard Foundation in Pakistan in engaged in research on traditional herbal remedies. However these efforts have not been pursued vigorously and consistently in other countries.

4.0 QUR’ANIC AND PROPHETIC MEDICINE:

 The Qur’an and sunnat have many teachings on medicine either general or specific (19, 29, 30,31, 66, 67).  The Qur’an is itself a cure and there is a definite role for spiritual cures in the medical scheme (6). The relevance of Qur’anic and hadith guidance on medicine and health to the modern situation has been a major pre-occupation. Some authors have prescribed preventive and curative measures from the teachings of the Qur’an and the sunnat of the Prophet (1,2, 48, 71). Preventive medicine has in particular been associated with Islamic medicine (47). There have been attempts to reconcile medical teachings of the Qur’an and sunnat with modern findings by medical science (17, 61, 66). Clinical and other studies have been carried out about medical teachings in the sunnat to prove their efficacy. The black seed is the most popular in this regard (57). While tibb Qur’anu and tibb nabawi  are a valid expression of Islamic medicine, they do not represent the total picture or cover the whole spectrum of Islamic medicine (52).

5.0 CRITERIA OF ISLAMIC MEDICINE

Ahmad El Kadhi presented a paper at the First International Conference on Islamic Medicine held in Kuwait in January 1980 (Athar 1993) and proposed 6 distinguishing criteria of Islamic medicine and using statistics and medical experience in the US argued that modern western medicine did not fulfill the criteria of being (a) excellent and advanced; (b) based on faith and Divine ethics; (c) guided and oriented, ie consistent and logical; (d) comprehensive, paying attention tot he body and the spirit, the individual and the society; (e) universal, utilizing all useful resources and offers its services to all mankind; (f) scientific. Two of the 6 criteria require a re-examination.  Criterion (a) should not be taken in an absolute way.  A medical system’s excellence or advancement is a relative assessment based on the knowledge and resources available at a particular time and a particular place medical systems are continuously improving making it virtually impossible to classify them at a particular point in time as excellent.  Criterion (e) about medicine being scientific could better be defined as based on objective research using all sources of knowledge available including revelation.  The word ‘scientific’ and ‘scientific method’ have been misused as representing objectivity when in practice we know that there are many in-built biases in today’s medical research that reflect subjective opinions, philosophies, and world views.  This is in addition to fraud and incompetence that are reported in the press.

6.0 VALUES AND ETHICS OF ISLAMIC MEDICINE

Use of values and ethics as defining characteristics was seen as an improvement on the definition of Islamic Medicine using operational criteria. The criteria are difficult to measure and compare across different systems of medicine. Dr. Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr. in a paper presented to the first International Islamic Medicine Conference Kuwait (Kasule 1980) argued that Islamic medicine can be defined only as values and ethics and not as any specific medical procedures or therapeutic agents.  This definition allows Islamic medicine to be a universal all-embracing concept that has no specific or particular time-space characteristics. A definition based only on values is however too general to be useful operationally.  Values can be very subjective and difficult to define exactly.

5.0 WORKING DEFINITION OF ISLAMIC MEDICINE

It is clear from the above that there is a need for a clearer definition.  Various perspectives of Islamic medicine have been explored critically and a synthesis is made ending with a proposal of a new definition below.  A definition proposed by Kasule (52) for Islamic medicine could act as a working hypothesis until a finer definition evolves: Islamic medicine is defined as medicine whose basic paradigms, concepts, values, and procedures conform to or do not contradict the Qur’an and sunnat. It is not specific medical procedures or therapeutic agents used in a particular place or a particular time. Islamic medicine is universal, all-embracing, flexible, and allows for growth and development of various methods of investigation and treatment of diseases within the framework described above’.

REFERENCES

1. Abdullah, Muhammad Mahmoud. [al Tibb fi al Qur'an wa al Sunnat Bayna Tashkhiis al Daa wa Ma'arfiat al Dawa]. Medicine in Qur'an and Sunnat Between Diagnosis and Treatment. Dar maktabat al tarbiyat. Beirut. ? date
2. Abdullah, Muhammad Mahmoud. [al Tibb al Qur'ani Bayna al Ghada'a wa al Dawa] Qur'anic Medicine Between Diet and Drugs. Muassasat Shabab al jamiat. Alexandria. ? Date
3. Amod, Farouk. Formation of the Islamic Medical Association of South Africa. Islamic Medical Associaiton of South Africa, Durban 1996
4. Anonymous. Kulliyah of Medicine. International Islamic University, Malaysia: Kulliyah Handbook. 1997/98
5. Anonymous. IMA Clinics: taking Health Care to the People: Dispensing More than Justice. IMA Clinics Committee. Durban. 1995
6. Anonymous: Second Islamic Medicine Conference: Abstracts. Kuwait 29 March-2 April 1982/4-8 Jamadi al akhirat 1402
7. Anonymous: Fasting: Medical Guidelines (flyer): Islamic Medical Association of South Africa. ? Date
8. Anonymous: Immunisations- the Medical Facts (flyer). Islamic Medical Association of South Africa. ? date
9. Anonymous: 16^th Annual Convention of IMA of South Africa.  Durban. 4-7 July 1996/17-20 Safar 1417
10. Anonymous :Islamic Medical Association Gauteng Mobile Clinic Project. 1996
11. Anonymous: Fasting and the Patient: Some Guidelines. Islamic Medical Association of South Africa.  Durban. 1995
12. Anonymous: Code of Conduct for Health Care Providers. Islamic Medical Association of South Africa.  Durban. 1996
13. International Organisation of Islamic Medicine. Islamic Code of Medical Ethics (Kuwait Document). Islamic Medical Association of South Africa (on the occasion of 2^nd Convention 29-31 May 1982/5-7 Syhaban 1402)
14. Athar, Shahid (ed). Islamic Perspective in Medicine: A Survey of Islamic Medicine: Achievements and Contemporary Issues. American Trust Publications. Indianaplois. 1993
15. Badri, Malik. The AIDS Crisis: An Islamic Socio-cultural Perspective. International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation. Kuala Lumpur 1997
16. Bakar, Osman. Philosophy of Islamic Medicine and Its Relevance to the Modern World. Secretariat for Islamic Philosophy and Science. Penang. 1996
17. Al Bar, Muhammad Ali. [al Adwah Bayn al Tiobb wa Hadith al Mustafa] Contagion Between Medicine and the Hadith of the Prophet.  4^th edition. Al Dar al Saudia li al Nashr wa al Tawzi'i. Jeddah 1981/1401
18. Basyuni, Abdul Hamid and Jundi, Rajai. (eds.): [Ibn Rushd: al Tabiib wa al Faqih, wa al Failasuf]. Ibn Rushd the physician, the jurist, and the philosopher. Islamic Medicine Organisation. Kuwait. 1995
19. Bukhari, Imaam. Al Jamiu al Sahih
20. Coovadia, Mohammed. A Practical Guide for Managing Drug Abuse. Islamic Medical Association of South Africa. Johannesburg. January 1996
21. Diib, Abdul Adhiim. [Abu al Qasim al Zahrawi: Awal Tabiib Jaraah fi al 'Aalam]. Dar al Ansar. Cairo. 1399/1979
22. Ebrahim AFM & Haffejee. The Shariah and Organ Transplants. Islamic Medical Association of South Africa.  1989
23. Ebrahim, Abul Fadl Mohsin. Biomedical Issues - Islamic Perspective. Islamic Medical Association of South Africa. Mobeni. 1988
24. Ebrahim, Abul Fadl Mohsin. Abortion, Birth Control & Surrogate Parenting: An Islamic Perspective. American Trust Publications. Indianapolis. 1989
25. Ebrahim, Abul Fadl Mohsin, Hoosen GM, Hathout H. Death and Dying: Advising Patient & Family. Islamic Medical Association of South Africa. Qualbert 1995
26. Ebrahim, Abul Fadl Mohsin, Vawda AI. Islamic Guidelines on Animal Experimentation. Islamic Medical Association of South Africa. Qualbert 1992
27. Federation of Islamic Medical Association (FIMA) Newsletter Volume 1 No. 2 January 1998/Ramadhan 1418
28. Haffajee, Farouk. The Muslim Patient: A Guide for Health Care Professionals. Islamic Medical Association of South Africa. Durban 1993
29. Haqqi, Muhammad Bashir. [al tibb al nabawi wa al Tibb al Qadiim]. Nadi Abha. 1983/1404
30. Ibn al Qayim al jawziyah.  Natural healing with the Medicine of the Prophet. Pearl Publishing House. 1993
31. Ibn al Qayim al jawziyah. [al Tibb al Nabawi] Prophetic Medicine. Al maktabat al Saudiyat. ? Date
32. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences: information brochure. Kuwait 1997
33. Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia: [Seminar: Konsep & Operasi Perubatan Islam] Seminar on the Concept and Operation of Islamic Medicine. Kuala Lumpur 17-18 June 1997
34. Journal of the Islamic Medical Association of South Africa. July 1995/Safar 1416
35. Journal of the Federation of Islamic Medical Associations. Vol 1. No. 1. FIMA. Kuala Lumpur. 1996/1417
36. Journal of the Islamic Medical Association of South Africa (JIMA) Volume 2, No. 2 55-84, December 1996/Shaban 1417
37. Journal of the Islamic Medical Association of South Africa (JIMA) Volume 3, No. 2 39-72, August 1997/Rabi al-akhir 1418
38. Journal of the Islamic Medical Association of South Africa (JIMA) Volume 3, No. 3 39-72, December 1997/Sha'ban 1418
39. Jundi al, Rajai (ed.). [al Islam wa al Mushkilaat al Tibiyyat al Muasirat: al injab fi Dhaw'i al Islam]. Islam and Contemporary Medical Problems. Series No. 1: Reproduction from the Islamic Viewpoint. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1983
40. Jundi al, Rajai (ed.). [al Islam wa al Mushkilaat al Tibiyyat al Muasirat:Ru'uyat Islamiyat li Zira'at ba'adh al a''adha al bashariyat]. Islam and Contemporary Medical Problems. Series No. 6: Islamic Viewpoint on the Transplantation of Some Human Organs. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1994
41. Jundi al, Rajai (ed.). [al Islam wa al Mushkilaat al Tibiyyat al Muasirat: Ru'uyat Islamiyat li al Mashakil al Ijtima'iyat li Maradh AIDS]. Islam and Contemporary Medical Problems. Series No. 7:Islamic Viewpoint on the Social Problems of AIDS. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1994
42. Jundi al, Rajai (ed.). [al Islam wa al Mushkilaat al Tibiyyat al Muasirat: ru;uyat Islamiyat li ba'adhi al mashakil al sihiyyat]. Islam and Contemporary Medical Problems. Series No. 8: Islamic Viewpoint on some Medical problems. Part 1: Establishing Human Skin Banks. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1996
43. Jundi al, Rajai (ed.). [al Islam wa al Mushkilaat al Tibiyyat al Muasirat: ru;uyat Islamiyat li ba'adhi al mashakil al sihiyyat]. Islam and Contemporary Medical Problems. Series No. 8: Islamic Viewpoint on some Medical problems. Part 2: Forbidden and Impure Materials in Food and Medicines. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1996
44. Jundi al, Rajai (ed.). [al Tibb al Islami: Mafahiim wa Dirasaat] Islamic Medicine: Series No. 1: Concepts and Studies. Part 1. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1994
45. Jundi al, Rajai (ed.). [al Tibb al Islami: Mafahiim wa Dirasaat] Islamic Medicine: Series No. 2: Concepts and Studies. Part 2. Islamic Organisation for Islamic Medicine. Kuwait. 1994
46. Jundi al, Rajai (ed.). [al Tibb al Islami: Mafahiim wa Dirasaat] Islamic Medicine: Series No. 3: Concepts and Studies. Part 1: Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1994
47. Jundi al, Rajai (ed.). [al Tibb al Islami: al Wiqayat fi al Islam] Islamic Medicine : Series No. 4: Prevention in Islam.Part 2. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1994
48. Jundi al, Rajai (ed.). [al Tibb al Islami: Dirasaat Hawla al Tibb al nabawi] Islamic Medicine: Studies on the Prophetic Medicine. Series No. 5. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1995
49. Kasule, Sr., Omar Hasan. Concepts Of Islamic Medical Education: Presented at the 4th Annual General Meeting of the Islamic Medical Association Kuban Kerian, Kelantan 7th June1996
50. Kasule,Sr. , Omar Hasan: The Empirical Scientific Method:  An Islamic Reframing. Paper presented at the International Islamic Conference on Values and Attitudes in Science. Kuala Lumpur. September 1996
51. Kasule, Sr, Omar Hasan. Organ Transplantation: Analysis Of The Legal And Ethical Issues Using The Concepts Of ‘Maqasid Al Sharia’ And ‘Al Qawaid Al Fiqhiyyat Al Kulliyyat’. Presented at the International Seminar on Organ Transplantation and Health care Management from an Islamic Perspective 29-30 July 1996 Jakarta Indonesia)
52. Kasule, Sr., Omar Hasan. Islamic Medicine: Concepts and Misunderstandings. Journal of the Federation of islamic Medical Associations. Vol 1 No. 1 June 1996/Muharram 1417
53. Kasule, Sr., Omar Hasan: Islamic Medicine in Africa in: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine. Kuwait. 1982
54. Kasule, Sr., Omar Hasan.: An Islamic Introduction to the Study and Practice of Medicine. Vol 1: Basic Concepts. (manuscript in preparation). International Islamic University Kuala Lumpur 1998
55. Kasule, Sr., Omar Hasan.: An Islamic Introduction to the Study and Practice of Medicine. Vol 2: Basic Medical Sciences & revelation. (manuscript in preparation). International Islamic University Kuala Lumpur 1998
56. Kasule, Sr., Omar Hasan.: An Islamic Introduction to the Study and Practice of Medicine. Vol 3: Medicine and Jurispudence. (manuscript in preparation). International Islamic University Kuala Lumpur 1998
57. Kasule, Sr., Omar Hasan.: An Islamic Introduction to the Study and Practice of Medicine. Vol 4: Society & Ethics. (manuscript in preparation). International Islamic University Kuala Lumpur 1998
58. Kasule, Sr., Omar Hasan.: An Islamic Introduction to the Study and Practice of Medicine. Vol 5: Islamic Medicine: Past, Present and Future. (manuscript in preparation). International Islamic University Kuala Lumpur 1998
59. Madhkour, Khalid et al (eds). [al Islam wa al Mushkilaat al Tibiyyat al Muasirat: al Ru'uyat al Islamiyat li Ba'adhi al Mumarasat al Tibiyyat]. Islam and Contemporary Medical Problems. Series No. 3: Islamic Viewpoint on Some Medical Procedures. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1987 & 1995
60. Madhkour, Khalid et al (eds). [al Islam wa al Mushkilaat al Tibiyyat al Muasirat: al hayat al Insaniyat: Bidayatiha wa nihayatiha fi al Mafhumi al islami]. Islam and Contemporary Medical Problems. Series No. 2:Human Life, Its Start and Its End from an Islamic Viewpoint. Islamic Organisation for Medical Sciences. Kuwait. 1985
61. Moore KL & Azzindani, Abdulmajeed. The Developing Human: A Clinically Oriented Embryology With Islamic Additions: Correlation Studies with Qur'an and Hadith. Dar al Qiblah for Islamic Literature 1983
62. Al Najjar, Abdurahman. [al Habbat al Sauda bayn al Dddin wa al Tibb] … between Religion and Medicine. Dar al Qiblat li al Thaqafat al islamiyyat. Jeddah. 1992/1412
63. Nadvi, Syed Habibul Haq. Medical Philosophy in Islam and the Contributions of Muslims to the Advancement of Medical Science: An Analytical Study of the Arabic medical literature, a Critique of the Oriental Scholarship and a demand for Historical Justice in Favour of Muslim medical Scientists of the Past. Academia. Durban. 1983
64. Nasr, Syed Hosein Nasr.Science and Civilisation in Islam. 2^nd edition. The Islamic Texts Society. Cambridge 1987
65. Al Naqib, Abdul Rahman. [al I'dad al tarbawi wa al mihani li al tabiib inda al muslimiin] Educational and Professional Training of a Muslim Physician. Dar al Fikr al Arabi. Cairo 1984
66. Othman, Nabih Abdurahman: [Mu'ujizat khalq al insan bayn al tibb wa al Qur'an]: Human Creation Between Medicine and the Qur'an]. Press and Publications Directorate, World Muslim League. Makka. Year 5, No. 2,. February 1986/Jamad al awaal 1405
67. Omar Mahomed AK. A Healthy Diet: Islam Shows the Way. Islamic Medical Association of South Africa.  Qualbert 1994
68. Qaradhawi, Yusuf. The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam. American Trust Publications. Indianapolis. ? Date
69. Quasemi, Qazi Moulana Mujahidul Islam. Family Planning & Abortion: An Islamic Viewpoint. Islamic Medical Association of South Africa. January 1996
70. Shahine, YA. The Arab Contribution to Medicine. Longman. 1971
71. Sirawan, Abdul Aziz Izziddin. [al Istishfau min al amradh al nafsiyat wa al jasadiyat bi ad'iyat al Qur'an wa a; hadith] Cure of Psychological and Physical Diseases with Supplications from the Qur'an and hadith. Dar al Afaq al Jadidat. Beirut. ? date
72. Suyuti, Jalaluddin Abdul Rahman. Medicine of the Prophet. Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. London 1994/1414
73. Taha, Ahmad. Medicine in the Light of the Qur'an and Sunna. Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. London 1993/1413
74. Ulmann, Manfred. [Al Tibb al Islami] Translation from English by Dr Yusuf al Kilani. 1981/1401

990821P - AN INTRODUCTION TO QUR'ANIC SCIENCES ('Uluum Al Qur'an)

Paper presented at the 11^thRegional Leadership Training Programme held in Hungary 21 Jul - 21 August 1999 by Prof Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr

OUTLINES

DESCRIPTION OF THE QUR'AN

Definition of the Qur’an

Practical guide.

Rational Approach (al istidlaal al aqli)

The miraculous nature of the Qur’an (i’jaz an Qur’an)

The revelation of the Qur’an (nuzul al Qur’an)

The collection of the Qur’an (jam’u al Qur’an)

The concept of occasion of revelation (sabab al nuzuul)

Chapters and sections of the Qur’an

Madanese and Makkan chapters

SCIENCES OF THE QUR'AN

Definition of sciences of the Qur’an (uluum al Qur’an)

List of the main Qur’anic sciences

Definition of ‘ilm al tafsir

History of ‘ilm al tafsir

Sources of tafsir

Disciplines that assist tafsir

Methods of  tafsir

Classification of ‘ilm al tafsir according to various criteria:

Interpretation by precedent (tafsir bi al ma’athuur)

Tafsiir based on rationality / opinion (tafsir bi al ra’ayi)

Interpretation based on empirical science (Tafsir ‘ilmi)

The concept of ta’awiil

The concept of abrogation (naskh)

Israiliyaat in tafsir

Indexation of the Qur’an

DESCRIPTION OF THE QUR'AN

Definition of the Qur’an: The Qur'an is technically defined as 'Allah’s words revealed to Muhammad (PBUH) in the Arabic language, transmitted to us in continuity, written in the mashaf, whose recitation is worship,  commencing with surat al fatihat and ends with surat al nas (‘kalaam al llaah al munazzal ala sayyidina Muhammad (SAW) bi al lafdh al ‘arabi al manquul ilaina bi al tawaatir al maktuub bi al masahif al muta’abbadu bi tilaawatihi al mu’ujiz bi aqsar surat minhu al mabdu bi surat al fatihat al makhtuum bi surat al naas).

Practical guide: According to Muhammad Iqbal the Qur’an is a book that emphasizes deed rather than idea.  The Qur’an is a practical work-plan and a guide for the family and the society. Each verse has practical implications. Verses on historical events are in the Qur’an for the instruction of the living and not just providing historical information. Verses of legal rulings (ayat al ahkam) regulate the daily lives of individuals and communities. Many verses deal with the universe (ayat kawniyyat) and are a basis for developments in science and technology. Other verses are for moral guidance or teaching the upright aqidat.

Rational Approach (al istidlaal al aqli): The Qur’an uses rational approaches that are akin to scientific enquiry. Examples of the Qur’an and rationalism are: similarity (tashabuhu & imtithaal), specialization (tajzi’at), generalization followed by particularization (ta’amiim & takhsiis), definition (ta’areef), apposition (muqabalat), examples and similitudes (amthaal), stories (qisas), argument and debate (jadal & munadharat), and induction (istiqra)

The miraculous nature of the Qur’an (i’jaz an Qur’an): The Qur’an is an intellectual, scientific and linguistic miracle. Deep study reveals to an open and incisive mind that this is not a product of the human mind. It defies and challenges human intellect. The Qur’an will continue as a standing miracle and challenge down the centuries to the last day.

The revelation of the Qur’an (nuzul al Qur’an): The Qur’an was revealed in bits and pieces (nuzuul al Qur’an munajjaman). The great wisdom behind this was to make sure that the first Muslims learned the teachings of the Qur’an in a practical context so that their understanding of the message would be perfect and thus ensure correct transmission to the later generations. Each verse was therefore revealed to coincide with an occasion to which it was related.

The collection of the Qur’an (jam’u al Qur’an): The companions of the prophet learned the Qur’an by heart. People in that simple society were largely illiterate had good memory because their minds were not crowded with other extraneous information as is found in more complex societies. Some companions who were literate wrote the Qur’an down. The prophet had official scribes who wrote down every verse as soon as it was revealed. They also noted its location by chapter and position in the chapter. Writing of hadith at the time of the prophet was discouraged for fear of confusion with the Qur’an. The prophet recited the Qur’an often so that the companions could learn and remember. He used to sit down on occasions and listen to their recitation to make sure they were reciting correctly. Abubakr collected all writings of the Qur’an that had been made at the time of the prophet and kept them safely. It was the third Khalifah Othman bin Affan who undertook the major task of collating all the existant writings into one standard volume written in the Quraishi dialect. This volume known as mushaf Othmani is what is read today throughout the Muslim world. The original style of writing has been preserved as much as possible and it differs from that of modern Arabic in some details. The earliest mushafs were written without dots on letters which could cause confusion between some letters like ‘b’ and ‘t’; it was Yusuf bin al Hajjaj al Thaqafi who introduced the dots. The Qur’an unlike common Arabic text has vowels to make sure there are no mistakes in reading. There are also many marks and instructions that guide the reader. The prophet read the Qur’an in 7 different ways (qira’at al Qur’an ‘ala al ahruf al sab’a). All are valid and have been preserved. They differ in the enunciation of some letters and words. The Qur’an can be recited as tartiil or as tajwid.. The former is straightforward whereas the latter involves using a more pleasant voice. There are special rules for tajwid (ahkam al tajwid).. In addition to the written mushaf there are thousands of Muslims who have learned the Qur’an by heart and this will continue until the last day (yawm al qiyamat). The Qur’an enjoys the distinction among all revelations of being the only scripture that has been preserved in its original form and has been transmitted in an unbroken chain (manqul bi al tawatir) until the present day.

The concept of occasion of revelation (sabab al nuzuul): Proper understanding and interpretation of a verse requires knowing the circumstances of its revelation. The Qur’an was revealed in a dynamically changing society. The verses revealed related to events actually taking place. Thus the present order of the verses is different from the chronological order in which they were revealed. Arranging the verses in their chronological order is like writing the history of the Islamic dawa during the 23 years during which the Qur’an was revealed.

Chapters and sections of the Qur’an: The Qur’an is divided into 114 chapters each called a surat. The first surat is al Fatihat also called the opening or mother of the book. The remaining surats are arranged in roughly a descending order on the basis of their length. Surat al Baqarat is the longest surat and it follows surat al fatiha. The last surat, al nas, is one of the shortest. Each surat starts with the basmalah except surat al baraa. There have been many misleading writings on the mathematical order or pattern in the Qur’an. These serve no useful purpose and they distract from understanding the message being revealed in the verses.

Madanese and Makkan chapters: The verses and chapters revealed in Makka differ in many ways from those revealed in Madina. This reflects the historical experiences. Muslims in Makka were weak and their main concern was to call others to the din, to preserve and strengthen their aqidat. Muslims in Madina were strong and were building a state. The Makkan verses are short, poetic, and powerful. They deal mostly with issues of aqidat. Verses revealed in Madina are longer and deal with details of societal organisation.

SCIENCES OF THE QUR'AN

Definition of  sciences of the Qur’an (uluum al Qur’an): Qur’anic sciences deal with general matters relating to the revelation, arrangement, collection, writing, recititation, interpretation, miracles, and abrogation of the Qur’an (al mabaahith al kulliyat allati tata’allaqu bi al Qur’an al karim min nahiyat nuzuulihi, wa tartibihi, wa jamuhu, wa kitaabatuhu, wa qiraatuhu, wa tafsiiruhu, wa ijazuhu, wa nasikhuhu wa mansuukhukhu).

List of the main Qur’anic sciences: Iinterpretation (‘ilm tafsir al Qur’an), circumstances of revelation (‘ilm asbaab al nuzuul),  miracles of the Qur’an (‘ilm i’ijaz al Qur’an), abrogating and abrogated verses in the Qur’an (‘ilm naasikh al Qur’an wa mansuukhuhu), legal rulings in the Qur’an (‘ilm ahkaam al Qur’an), excellence of the Qur’an (‘ilm fadhail al Qur’an), elucidating the complex in the Qur’an (‘ilm ta’wiil mushkil al Qur’an), clear and allegorical verses in the Qur’an (‘ilm al muhkam wa al mutashhabih), history of the writing of the Qur’an (‘ilm taarikh al Qur’an wa tadwwinuhu wa naskhihi wa kuttabihi wa rasmihi), grammar of the Qur’an (‘ilm i’iraab al Qur’an), and different readings of the Qur’an (‘ilm al Qira’aat). These sciences are interelatad and share the characteristic of being methodological in approach.

Definition of ‘ilm al tafsir: It  was defined by Zarkashi as the science that deals with elucidating the indication intended by Allah in the Qur’an to the best of human capacity (‘ilm yubhathu fiihi ‘an ahwaal al Qur’an al Majeed min haithu dalaalatihi ‘ala muraad al llah ta’ala bi qadr al taqat al bashariyyat). ‘Ilm tafsir al Qur’an is the most important of the ‘uluum al Qur’an. It has a basis in the Qur’an (Sad: 29, nisa: 82). The major issue in tafsir is to reconcile the holiness of the text with the humanness of the interpreter (mufassir); who being human has limitations and weaknesses and may make mistakes in the interpretation of the text. The tafsir of clear verses (ayat muhakamat) is easier and more straightforward than that of allegorical verses (ayat mutashabihat).  A clear verse (Ayat muhakkamat) is defined as one whose literal meaning is the same as the actual meaning, is clear, and is not possibly abrogated (‘al dalaalat al dhaahiru alladhi la yatahammalu al naskh’) (p 55 3:7, 11:1, 22:52). The allegorical verse is defined as one that whose actual meaning can not be elucidated from its literal meaning and can not be understood by stand by itself without interpretation (ma lam yutalaqqa ma’anhu min lafdhihi, wa la yastaqillu bi nafsihi bal yahtaaju ila bayaan’).

History of ‘ilm al tafsir: The evolution of tafsir went through many stages: The Prophet’s tafsir was to explain the details and explain the meaning. A major portion of tafsir was through the actions of the prophet because his life was a reflection of the Qur’an in practice. The tafsir of sahabat was either trasmitted from the prophet (naqli) or was based on their own judgment (ijtihadi). The most famous mufassiriin among the companions were according to al Suyuti: Abubakr, Omar, Othman, Ali, Ibn Mas’ud, Ibn Abbaas, Ubayy bin Ka’ab, Zayd bin Thabit, Abu Musa al Ash’ari, and Abdullah bin al Zubayr (Hadidi 1983). The discipline of tafsir grew when differences started to appear and there was a need to look for solutions to the problems that arose in the community. Tafsir remains a dynamic and growing discipline to our day because the Qur’an is a contunuing challenge and every generation undetstands it in its own way.

Sources of tafsir: There are 2 primary sources of tafsir: the Qur’an and the sunnat. The Qur’an explains itself. Sunnat explains the Qur’an. Ijtihad and inference (istinbaat) are additional sources of tafsir. The Qur’an can explain itself because of its internal unity such that one part can elaborate and not contradict another. Methods of the Qur’an interpreting itself (tafsir al Qur’an bi al Qur’an) include:  a detailed verse interpreting a brief concise verse (sharh al mujaz bi al mubassat), an open verse being interpreted by a restrictive one (sharh al mutlaq bi al muqayyad), the general being interpreted by the specific (sharh al aam bi al mukhassas), reconciling what are apparently different assertions (al jamu bayn ma yatawahhamu annahu mukhtalif) (Hadid 1983). Methods the sunnat interpreting the Qur’an (tafsir al Qur’an bi al sunnat) include: explaining the general, clarifying the comlicated (mushkil), making the general particular, restricting the open (mutlaq), explaining terrminology (lafdh), explaining abrogation (naskh), and emphasizing Qur’anic legal rulings (hukm) (Hadid 1983).

Disciplines that assist tafsir: the science of linguistics (‘ilm al lugha wa al nahawu wa al saraf), science of Qur’anic readings (ilm al qiraat), theology (‘ilm usul al ddiin), science of the principles of jurispudence (ilm usul al fiqh), science of the occasions of revelation (‘ilm asbaab al nuzuul). There are disciplines not yet discribed today that will push ‘ilm al tafsir to new heights of achievement in the future.

Methods of tafsir: Each mufassir uses a different methodology. It is worth studying the methodology before reading the tafsir. Famous mufassirin like Ibn Abbas and Abu Jarir al Tabari had each a different approach. The methodology of Ibn Abbas, the father of tafsir, included: use of sabab al nuzuul (occasion, time, and place), identifying the abrogating (naasikh) and abrogated (mansuukh) verses, use of poetry to understand meanings of Arabic words and expressions, using the Qur’an to interprete itself (tafsir al Qur’an bi al Qur’an), and considering the personal and human dimension.  Al Tabari’s tafsir methodology included: using precedence (tafsir bi al mathuur), interpreting stories using evidence (tafsir al qisas bi al hujjat),  refusal of rationalist interpretation (tafsir bi al ray), literal interpretation of the text (tafsir al nass dhahiriyat), and use of linguistic tools.

Classification of ‘ilm al tafsir accrding to various criteria:

by approach: linguistic, literal

by source: Qur’an, sunnat, ijtihad, inference (isitinbat)

by method: precedence (tafsir bi al mathur),  ration/reason (tafsir bi al ra’ay)

by subject matter (tafsir mawdhu’i): terms and words (tafsir bi al alfadh & al kalimaat),  jurispudence (tafsir fiqhi), sufi (tafsir sufi), philosophy (tafsir falsafi), science (tafsir ‘ilmi), linguistics (tafsir lughawi), literature (tafsir adabi), social (tafsir ijtimae), empiricism (tafsir tajriibi),  and sectarian (tafsir aqdi) such as sunnite or shiite.

Interpretation by precedent (tafsir bi al ma’athuur): Tafsir bi al mathuur refers to explanations that are from the Qur’an, the sunnat, the companions and the followers. The three most important authors of this method were: Muhammad bin Jariir bin Yaziid bin Kathir Abu Ja’afar al Tabari (224 - 310 AH), Ismail bin Omar bin Kathiir al Qurashi al Basrawi al Dimashqi (701 - 774 AH), and Abd al Rahman bin Abi Bakr bin Muhamad bin Sabiq al Ddiin al Khudhairi al Suyuuti (849 - 911 AH).

Tafsiir based on rationality / opinion (tafsir bi al ra’ayi) uses ijtihad. It can be praiseworthy (mahmuud), or blameworthy (madhmuum). The praiseworthy uses opinion that is guided by valid general principles from the Qur’an and sunnat. The blameworthy is based purely on rational reasoning and could lead to wrong conclusions. The main field of tafsir bi al ra’ay are the allegorical verses. Tafsir bi al ra’ay has been controversial throughout the ages because of its use reason and rationality. Ibn Taymiyyat considered tafsir bi al ra’ay forbidden (haraam). There are supporters and opponents of tafsir bi al ra’ay in the ancient and modern periods. The balanced view is that use of reason or rationality within limits is not bad. These limits should be defined by the general principles and fundamentals of the creed (aqidat), and the purposes of the law (maqasid al shariat).

Interpretation based on empirical science (Tafsir ‘ilmi): Tafsir ‘ilmi is empirical and scientitifc; it related to empirical sciences (uluum kawniyyat) and the miraculous nature of the Qur’an (ijaz al Qur’an). The main assertion of tafsir ilmi is that there is no contradiction between science and the Qur’an. Tafsir ilmi is defined as the intellectual effort of the interpreter to discover the link between the verses of the Holy Qur’an dealing with the empirical world on one hand and the discoveries of empirical science on the other hand such that the miraculous nature of the Qur’an is exposed; this proves that the Qur’an is indeed a word of Allah and is suitable for every place and every time ( Ijtihad al mufassir fi kashf al silat bayn ayaat al Qur’an al kareem al kawniyyat wa muktashafaat al ilm al tajriibi ala wajh yadh’hiru bi ijaz li al Qur’an yadullu ala masdarihi wa salahiyatihi li kulli zamaan wa makaan (Rumi pt 3, p 549, 1987). Examples of tafsir ilmi is finding scientific explanations for Qur’anic verses on creation of everything from water, prohibition of coitus during menstruation(haidh), and exemption from salat and saum during menstruation. In both ancient and modern times tafsir ‘ilmi has had proponents and opponents. Ancient suporters of tafsir ‘ilmi: al Ghazzali (d. 505 AH), al Fakhr al Razi (d. 606 AH), al Zarkashi (d. 794 AH), Ibn Abi Fadl al Mursi, and al Suyuti (d. 911 AH). Ancient opponents of tafsir ‘ilmi: al Shatibi (d. 790), and Ibn Hayyaan al Andalusi (d. 745 AH). Modern supporters of tafsir ‘ilmi are: Abd Rahman al Kawakibi in tabaiu al istibdaad wa masariu al istibaad, Muhammad Abduh, Abd al Hamid bin Badees in tafsir Ibn Badees - majalis al tadhakkur min kalaam al hakiim al khabiir, Muhammad Mutawalli Sha’araawi, Hasan al Banna, al Tantawi in al jawahor fi tafsir al Qur’an al karim, Abdul Aziz Ismail in al islam wa al tibb al hadith, Hanafi Ahmad in: al tafsiir al ilmi li al ayaat al kawniyyat fi al Qur’an, Muhammad Bakhiit al Mutie in: tanbiihu al ‘uquul al insaniyyat lima fi ayat al Qur’an min al ‘uluum al kawniyyat, Mustafa Maraghi, Muhammad Abdullah Darraaz in: madkhal ila al Qur’an al kareem, Wahidu al Ddiin Khan in: al Islam yatahadda, Mustafa Sadiq al  Rafie in: ‘ijaz al Qur’an wa al balaghat al nabawiyyat, Muhammad Ahmad al Ghamrawi, Muhammad jJmaluddin al Fandi in al Qur’an wa al ‘ilm,  and  Muhammad al Tahir bin Ashour in al Tahriir wa al tanwiir. Modern opposers of tafsir ‘ilmi: Mahmud Shaltuut, Amin al Kholi, Abbas al Aqaad, Syed Qutb, Muhammad Rashid Ridha, Abbas Mahmoud al Akkad, Muhammad Izzat, Muhammad Abd al Rahiim al Zarqani (in: manahil al irfaan fi uluum al Qur’an).

The concept of ta’awiil: The concept of ta’awil can be used in a positive sense or in a negative one. In the positive sense it is similar to tafsir but there are technical differences that experts can explain. In a negative sense it can be used to refer to attempts to interprete the holy text to support pre-conceived views or personal or parochial interests. The Qur’an talked about ta’awil (p 221 4:59, 7:53, 10:39, 17:35, 18:78, 18:82, p 221 3:7).

The concept of abrogation (naskh): This has already been discussed at length before in the unit on methodology.

Israiliyaat in tafsir: Some mufassirin have borrowed from judaic folklore to provide details about some Qur’anic stories. This reflects misunderstanding of the purposes of the Qur’an. The stories told by the Qur’an are for moral teaching of the living; they have no historical value since the Qur’an is not a text-book of history. The Qur’an therefore did not tell all the details of each story and the prophet did likewise not feel the need to do so. Recourse to israiliyaat is an attempt to get the historical details complete which is unnecessary.

Indexation of the Qur’an: All down the centuries students of the Qur’an have always wanted to index it so that it is easier to look for verses relevant to a certain subject or topic. Several indices were published and more will continue to be published. Since the Qur’an is a living miracle, new developments in knowledge always lead to new insights in its interpretation. It is therefore inevitable that the indices are reviewed regularly.