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Lecture delivered to 1st year medical students at Kuantan, Pahang on June 18th 1997 by Prof Dr Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr. Deputy Dean for Research and Post-graduate Affairs, Kulliyah of Medicine IIUM.
OUTLINE
1. BASIC TERMINOLOGY AND CONCEPTS
- ‘ILM
- MA’ARIFAT
- HIKMAT
- DHANN
- JAHL
2. HISTORY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE
- ADAM
- EARLY MAN
- ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS
- GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD
- MUSLIM PERIOD
- EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE
- MODERNITY
- POST-MODERNITY
3. SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
- WAHY
- ‘AQL
- KAUN
4. CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE
- SEEN - UNSEEN
- USEFUL - HARMFUL
- LAWFUL - UNLAWFUL
5. LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE
- THE PAST AND THE FUTURE
- TIME FRAME
- THE SENSES
- THE INTELLECT
1.0 BASIC TERMINOLOGY/CONCEPTS (Muṣṭalaḥāt/Mafāhīm Asāsiyyah)
The term ‘ilm is used in the Qur’an to refer to knowledge. Knowledge is of various degrees: ‘ilm al-yaqīn, ‘ayn al-yaqīn, and ḥaqq al-yaqīn. Some argue that the term ‘ilm should be used specifically for ‘ilm al-yaqīn. The Qur’an has used the term ‘ilm in many contexts. Knowledge is closely related to īmān (‘ilm & īmān). It is a criterion of superiority (faḍl al-‘ilm). It is also used in the sense of intellect (‘ilm & ‘aql), and in relation to the study and understanding of Allah’s signs (‘ilm & āyāt). Taqwā is based on correct knowledge of the Creator, the self, and the relationship between the two (‘ilm & taqwā).
The term ma‘rifah is also translated as knowledge. It denotes a lesser degree of certainty than ‘ilm. The term ma‘rifah is preferred in most discussions of human knowledge due to the inherent uncertainty of human understanding. Ḥikmah is a higher level of knowledge that interprets and applies factual information within a moral context. Baṣīrah is a divinely guided use of the senses such that perceptions are correct. Ra’y is opinion based on rational considerations; it may be right or wrong. Ẓann refers to conjecture—knowledge that is not certain because it is not evidence-based. The Qur’an condemns both paying attention to and following ẓann. In many verses, the Qur’an advocates for evidence-based knowledge (ḥujjiyyat al-burhān) and challenges those who make claims to produce evidence.
Ignorance (jahl) is used in the Qur’an as the antonym of knowledge (‘ilm). Ignorance may be simple—when a person knows that they do not know—or compounded, when one is unaware of their ignorance. Other Qur’anic terms related to knowledge include: tadhkirah, taṣawwur, shu‘ūr, yaqīn, lubb, albāb, naba’, dirāyah, ḥaqq, and burhān.
The question of where the seat of knowledge lies in the body is unresolved. Both the brain (‘aql) and the heart (qalb) are candidates. Modern medical science favors the brain, but the heart cannot be excluded, as it is mentioned frequently in the Qur’an. Current scientific knowledge cannot conclusively resolve this issue.
Knowledge is vast and continuously expanding. Individuals and communities possess only a fraction of it and must remain humble. Knowledge is not confined to humans—angels and animals also possess forms of knowledge. There is no textual or scientific evidence confirming knowledge of plants.
Epistemology is the science of knowledge (‘ilm al-‘ilm). It studies the origin, nature, and methods of knowledge. Modern epistemology introduces concepts such as relativity and probability, which Muslim scholars have yet to fully address. Relativity has caused confusion in both social and natural sciences; however, some truths remain absolute, while others change depending on the frame of reference. Thus, defining the frame is essential.
Probability highlights the limitations of human senses. Knowledge derived from them is approximate. Scientific research aims to increase the probability of truth but cannot attain absolute certainty. Each scientific conclusion carries a measurable probability of correctness.
Defining an Islamic epistemology (naẓariyyat ma‘rifiyyah islāmiyyah) remains a major challenge. It must be Qur’an-based and rooted in the tawḥīdī paradigm, with fixed parameters from the Qur’an and Sunnah and flexible elements to accommodate changing contexts. The ultimate aim is truth (yaqīn). However, both revealed and empirical knowledge may be misunderstood if the intellect is biased. The Qur’anic term for objectivity is istiqāmah.
2.0 HISTORY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE (Tārīkh al-Ma‘rifah al-Insāniyyah)
Adam was the first human recorded to acquire knowledge actively, learning the names of things for classification and identification. Archaeological evidence shows gradual human progress through trial and error—fire use, tools, housing, animal husbandry, and agriculture.
As societies formed, communication and record-keeping became essential. Writing evolved from pictorial representations to symbolic alphabets. This development enabled the preservation and transmission of knowledge. Language and mathematics further advanced intellectual capacity, allowing abstraction, analysis, and logical organization.
Modern science is relatively recent. While Europe dominates today, science is a shared human heritage. The Babylonians advanced astronomy and mathematics; the Egyptians contributed to medicine and science; the Greeks pursued theory but avoided experimentation; the Romans applied knowledge practically. After Europe’s decline, the Muslim world preserved and expanded knowledge, which later fueled the European Renaissance.
Key figures such as Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton advanced scientific laws. Later, Albert Einstein introduced relativity, and Werner Heisenberg proposed the uncertainty principle.
Human history also records intellectual crises (azmat ‘aqliyyah) due to the misuse of intellect, superstition, or neglect of revelation and empirical methods.
3.0 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE (Maṣādir al-Ma‘rifah)
All knowledge originates from Allah. It is acquired through revelation (waḥy) or empirical observation. Knowledge of the unseen (‘ilm al-ghayb) comes through revelation, while knowledge of the observable world (‘ilm al-shahādah) comes through interaction with the environment. Both require intellect (‘aql).
Humans possess innate knowledge and acquire more through learning, either individually or socially. Sources include transmitted knowledge (naql) and personal experience.
The three primary sources are revelation, intellect, and empirical observation. Revelation provides the ultimate truth and methodology. Intellect interprets both revelation and empirical data, while revelation safeguards intellect from error.
There is debate over whether ilhām (inspiration), ḥads (intuition), jibillah (instinct), and firāsah are independent sources. Firāsah—judging based on limited observation—can be unreliable. However, divine insight (baṣīrah) is acknowledged.
Magic and superstition are not valid sources of knowledge. The concept of causality (sababiyyah) underlies empirical science.
Knowledge must be shared. It is not property (māl) but a collective trust.
4.0 CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE (Taṣnīf al-Ma‘rifah)
Knowledge can be classified as follows:
- By empiricity: ‘ilm al-shahādah (seen) and ‘ilm al-ghayb (unseen)
- By obligation: farḍ kifāyah (collective) and farḍ ‘ayn (individual)
- By utility: beneficial (nāfi‘) and harmful (ḍārr)
- By status: shar‘ī and non-shar‘ī
- By legality: lawful and unlawful
- By level: ‘ilm al-yaqīn, ‘ayn al-yaqīn, ḥaqq al-yaqīn
- By domain: ‘ulūm al-dīn and ‘ulūm al-dunyā
- By subject: biological and non-biological
- By methodology: methodological and descriptive
Human knowledge has inherent limitations:
- The past and future belong to ‘ālam al-ghayb
- Humans cannot perceive extremely slow or fast phenomena
- Human perception operates within limited time frames
- Senses can be deceived
- Intellect has interpretive limitations
The unseen (ghayb) is either absolute (ghayb muṭlaq)—known only to Allah—or relative (ghayb nisbī), which may be accessible under certain conditions. Scientific research aims to reduce the unknown within the realm of relative unseen.
KEY WORDS
ARABIC: ‘aql, fikr, ilm, marifat, ghaib
ENGLISH: epistemology, deduction, induction, causality, empirical knowledge, relativity, probability, intuition, instinct.
DISCUSSION
- What do you understand by the term ‘knowledge is power’; is it always true?
- What is the difference between knowledge and information?
- What instinctive knowledge does a child have on birth?
- How do you define intuition; how reliable is it as a source of knowledge
- What do you know about extra-sensory perception; is it a reality or an illusion?
- Define tadabbur and explain how it is used in the knowledge process
- What does understanding (faham) imply? Is knowledge possible without understanding?
- What does the term ‘fiqh’ mean in Qur’anic usage?
- What do you understand by intellect? How does human intellect function?
- What is thinking? Is it necessary for knowledge?
- What is meant by evidence-based knowledge?
- What is meant by experiential knowledge?
- Define the terms burhan, hujja, and daliil. How do they differ in Qur’anic usage?
- What is the antonym of knowledge; explain how you reach that conclusion
- List as many ways as you can in which human differs from animal knowledge
- Look up verses in which the following synonyms of knowledge are used: yaqeen, shu’ur, idraak,
- tasawwur, hifdh, tadhkirat. What does each mean exactly
- Describe how Allah’s knowledge differs from that of humans
- What does the Qur’anic term dhann mean?