0810L - MODULE 1.0 EPISTEMOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

© October 2008 Professor Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr.

Synopsis for use in teaching sessions of the postgraduate course ‘Essentials of Epidemiology in Public Health’ Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University Malaya Malaysia October 2008

UNIT 1.1

SOME PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPTS RELEVANT TO KNOWLEDGE AND ITS SOURCES

Lecture by Professor Omar Hasan Kasule Sr. MB ChB (MUK), MPH (Harvard), DrPH (Harvard) for postgraduate students at the Department of Social and Preventive Medicine Universiti Malaya on Friday 13^th July, 2007

1.1.1 The term philosophy derives from the Greek and Greek and Latin words for ‘love of wisdom’. Definition of philosophy is not easy because of diverse views. It is basically a methodological discipline that reflects on the universe and human experience. It can also be defined as a critical study of basic beliefs and concepts.

1.1.2 Agnosticism from Greek for ‘unknowable’ is the doctrine that humans cannot know anything beyond human experience. It involves disinterest in God and religion. The agnostic says he does not know about God whereas an atheist rejects the existence of God.

1.1.3 Cartesianism is a philosophical tradition founded by Rene Descartes. It is rationalist (knowledge can be derived by reason from innate ideas) but is not opposed to empiricism. It considers scientific knowledge to be uncertain and probable. It advocates dualism of the soul and matter. It acknowledges existence of God.

1.1.4 Dialectic is a philosophical concept of evolution applied to various fields of thought. Dialectical materialism is a philosophical approach attributed to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It is based on materialism which they consider the source of ideas as well as mental and spiritual processes. Materialism asserts that all knowledge is obtained by use of senses and by practical experience

1.1.5 Empiricism: Empiricism is the concept that beliefs must be based on actual experience to be valid. If experiences are limited to the sensory, empiricism would deny revelation, intuition, conjecture, and rationalism. If we accept that experiences could be non-sensory such as mental experiences or revelation, then empiricism becomes a wider and more useful concept. Empiricism does not mean repudiation of theory because the best theories are developed from empirical observations. Empiricism should also not deny a priori or innate knowledge and concepts because they can be real. Empiricism should also not deny rationalism because rational reasoning can be based on empirical premises.

1.1.6 Rationalism vs empiricism

Philosophy of science seeks to understand methods of scientific inquiry and to assess their validity. Early Greek philosophers wrote about the philosophy of science. The two trends were clear from the start: the empiricist and the rationalist. Plato and Aristotle were rationalists. Stoics and Epicureans were empiricist. Empiricism was the dominant philosophy in the medieval era and it was found compatible with belief in religion. With the start of the renaissance serious questions about the philosophy of science were investigated. Roger Bacon was an empiricist who asserted was the first to formulate the principles of induction. He preferred observation to deductive reasoning. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and William of Ockham followed Roger Bacon. Rene Descartes asserted deduction as the mode of scientific reasoning and inquiry. Newton devised the hypothetico-deductive method that did not fully follow the Baconian induction or the Cartesian deduction. Philosophers were divided regarding the nature of Newton’s contributions. Some considered the Newtonian method to be empiricist whereas others considered it to be rationalist. Kant resolved the conflict between the 2 camps by assettng that there is a priori knowledge to which empirical knowledge could be added. He explained Newton’s methods on the basis that a scientist has concepts and categories in his mind that give structure to the knowledge. This then became a basis for theorizing. Logical positivists denied any knowledge from other than sensory experience. Karl Popper rejected inductive generalization and asserted that only falsifiability made a statement empirical. The debate between empiricism and rationalism is the central debate in epistemology and has not yet been laid to rest. Prior non empirical supposition are used in some branches of science and not in others.

1.1.7 Empirical laws and theories

An empirical law is an inductive generalization of observed empirical phenomena that can be tested directly. A scientific theory is a human intellectual attempt to explain observed phenomena in a rational manner and cannot be tested directly. A theory, once established, can be used to deductively derive empirical laws and empirical theorems.

1.1.8 Logical empiricism also called logical positivism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that scientific knowledge is the only factual knowledge and that any metaphysical knowledge is meaningless. Some empiricists assert that the human mind was a clean slate ‘tabula rasa’ before senses brought it experiences from the environment. Logical positivism considers questions about God and causality cannot be answered.

1.1.9 Enlightenment was an 18^th century European philosophical movement that presented the human as perfect with no limits to human achievement. It made the deity an impersonal force. It argued for human autonomy and use of reason. It caused doubts about the scriptures by subjecting them to critical analysis.

1.1.10 Ethics is a discipline concerned with studying what is morally good and to distinguish it from what is morally bad. It is closely related to religious beliefs. Ethics can be derived from revelation and from human reasoning. Many ethical values are universal among all humans. Many societies codify their ethical principles within the law. There are also ethical principles that are moral teachings and others that are part of culture and social behavior.

1.1.11 Humanism is a term that refers to placing the human at the center of everything. It dis-emphasizes the centrality of God in life. Humanism rejects tradition and seeks objective answers. It places emphasis on the individual. Humanistic ideas have influenced art, science, religion, and philosophy.

1.1.12 Idealism emphasizes the ideal or the spiritual in interpreting human experience. Idealism which sees mind as the only reality, materialism which sees matter as the only reality

1.1.13 Logic, applied: Applied logic is the skill of reasoning correctly following certain rules.

1.1.14 Logic, formal: Formal logic is study structures or logical forms used in deductive arguments. Formal logic is an apriori and not an empirical science.

1.1.15 Metaphysics is study of the real nature of things by going beyond the empirical. Among issues studied by metaphysics are: what really exists, the contrast between reality and appearance, first or irrefutable basic principles. Religions provide answers to issues investigated by metaphysics. Among problems of metaphysics are: the existence of God; interrelations among soul, mind, and body; the conception of the spirit.

1.1.16 Naturalism is a theory stating that all objects and events in the universe are natural and are therefore knowable by scientific investigation. Naturalism denies the supernatural except in a few situations in which the effect of the supernatural can be knowable by scientific investigation.

1.1.17 Nihilism from Latin ‘nothing’ is a philosophy of skepticism that negated authority (state, church, and family) and based its beliefs only on science.

1.1.18 Phenomenology is a philosophical school that asserts that phenomena should be described as consciously experienced without any prior theories, preconceptions, or pre-suppositions.

1.1.19 Phenomenalism asserts that knowledge does not extend beyond perception. There is no existence of an object in the ‘mind’ independent of perception.

1.1.20 Pluralism and monism are two philosophical concepts that are two ends of the spectrum. Monism emphasized the essential unity of all things in the universe. Pluralism emphasizes the multiplicity and diversity of things. In actual practice we can perceive unity in diversity.

1.1.21 Positivism is concept that confines human knowledge to physical experience and excludes any metaphysical influences.

1.1.22 Pragmatism: This is a school of philosophy that asserts that the criterion of merit of ideas is their usefulness, practicability, and consequence. It puts experience above doctrine. It is the opposite of idealism and intellectualism.

1.1.23 Rationalism: Rationalists consider reason to be the main source of knowledge. It asserts that the universe is rational, orderly, and structured. It is contrary to empiricism which asserts that knowledge is from experience especially sensory. Rationalism is also contrary to revelation and intuition. 

1.1.24 Secularism is focus on life on earth and shunning concern with the afterworld. It arose during the reformation as humanism, concern with human affairs and human endeavors on earth. In essence secularism should not be anti-religion but in practice it has been.

1.1.25 Skepticism is doubting of any claim of knowledge. Skeptics challenge any accepted dogmas or views. When applied to religion skepticism means disbelief. In philosophy and science skepticism has played a positive role of forcing those with certain ideas to reexamine and defend or abandon them.

1.1.26 Spiritualism: Spiritualism asserts that there is immaterial reality that cannot be perceived by the senses. It subsumes the following concepts: an infinite personal God, immortality of the soul, immateriality of human intellect and human will. Spiritualism is beyond matter.

1.1.27 Thought is manipulation of symbols using logical operators. The symbols may be verbal or concepts stored in the mind. Thinking essentially is assembling and analyzing information within the mind. The process of thinking needs motivation. If the motivation is internal thought is imagination. If the motivation is external, thinking becomes logical involving making judgments and solving problems. Logical thinking can be inductive (combining several propositions to reach a general conclusion) or deductive (starting from a hypothesis to reach a specific conclusion). Both induction and deduction are used by ordinary humans.  

1.1.28 Utilitarianism: This is a philosophical concept that an act is judged to be right if it promotes happiness among the performer and those affected by it. It does not consider innate evil or good in the action and neither does it consider the motive behind the action. It is possible to do the right thing with the wrong motive.

UNIT 1.2

HISTORY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE

1.2.1 BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE

1.2.1.1 ADAM AND THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE

Adam was the first human in recorded history to have acquired knowledge through an active process. He learned the names of things so that he might classify and identify them; most knowledge however complex starts with naming and classification.

 

1.2.1.2 KNOWLEDGE FROM REVELATION

Throughout human history knowledge has been acquired by revelation, through the agency of prophets, or by empirical observation and experimentation. Prophets were basically teachers who transmitted knowledge. Knowledge of the unseen is through revelation. Knowledge of the seen is acquired by direct interaction with the physical environment. Both methods of acquiring knowledge require the use of human intellect. It is a mistake to try getting a particular type of knowledge from the wrong source.

1.2.1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE

Science is study and understanding of nature with 2 ultimate objectives: satisfaction of human curiosity and material benefits for humans. It is based on the fact that there are regularities in nature that reflect underlying physical laws of the Creator. Science does not stop at description of regularities but extends beyond to understand underlying causes. Since science studies nature by use of senses that are not perfect, it can never claim absolute certainty in its assertions. 

The historical record is silent about what happened in terms of knowledge and scientific development after Adam. The archeological record however shows that humans in various habitats made progress in learning scientific concepts as well as developing simple technology such as use of fire, making and using tools, building durable homes, animal husbandry, and agriculture. Progress was slow and was mostly by trial and error. Ancients were keen observers of nature with the focus on movements of celestial bodies and variation of seasons. Astronomy was mixed with astrology and was closely bound with religious beliefs.

Growth of science and technology based on systematic and methodological investigation is recent in human history. Technological development was fastest when humans lived together in large communities where they could interact, learn from one another, and share their creative endeavors. Big spurts in the growth of human technological knowledge always coincided with discovery of new forms of energy in the following succession: fire, animal muscles, wind, hydro, explosives, steam, internal combustion engine, electricity, and nuclear energy. Technology has led and determined the growth of all other disciplines of human knowledge by bringing about major changes of social organization. Social and human sciences have developed in response to challenges posed by technology.

1.2.2.0 KNOWLEDGE IN THE ANCIENT WORLD:

1.2.2.1 COMMON HERITAGE

The history of modern science disciplines is very brief. Europeans and their descendants in the Americas, Australasia, and other parts of the world dominate science and technology today because of the head-start that their forefathers gave them during the European renaissance. This domination may make some people forget that modern science and technology is a common heritage of all humans and that all people contributed to its growth.

1.2.2.2 ANCIENT AGRICULTURAL CIVILIZATIONS

Mesopotamians developed mathematics, astronomy, and a number system. The Babylonians observed stars with no attempt at analyzing and synthesizing the phenomena they saw. The ancient Egyptians also had many developments in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. They developed a calendar mainly to help them predict the annual flooding of the Nile The ancient Chinese developed a calendar using astronomical observations. Practical knowledge of alchemy, medicine, geology, geography, and technology was encouraged. Indians studied movements of the sun, the moon, and the stars. They developed advanced mathematics including geometry and algebra. They also developed the Hindu-Arabic numerals that are used widely today. The Mayans of Central America studied astronomy and astrology and developed a calendar. All these ancient civilizations described nature but did not make attempts to understand it.

1.2.2.3 THE GREEKS and the HELLENIC CIVILIZATION

The Greeks studied Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics and medicine. They tried to find theoretical explanations for phenomena but loathed experimentation. Romans used some of the Greek science and made additions but mostly practical ones. With the decline of the Greek and Roman civilizations science was forgotten in Europe but it had a new beginning in the then ascendant Muslim world. Muslims used knowledge from the Greeks, improved it, and made new discoveries of their own.

Greeks seem to have started the tradition of inquiring about causes thus developing the discipline that was later to become philosophy. Science thus became natural philosophy. Aristotle and Archimedes were the most influential Greek scientists. Aristotle was a keen observer of nature but like later Greek scientists was not inclined to experimentation. Archimedes applied mathematical principles to description of nature. Hippocrates in the 5^th century BC under the influence of natural philosophy introduced the concept that disease was a natural and not a supernatural phenomenon. Later Greek physicians such as Galen made contributions to anatomy and physiology. When Romans conquered Greek lands, they did not encourage further growth of science. With the fall of Rome, science in Europe entered the middle ages of no growth but as mentioned above flourished in the Muslim lands.

1.2.2.4 EUROPEAN MEDIEVAL ERA

Medieval Europeans were trying to explain observed natural phenomena from a religious stand point. They saw no conflict between religion and science. The medieval thinkers saw God as the creator of the book of scripture and the book of nature. Scientific ideas woven around religious themes could therefore not be challenged easily because any challenge was treated as an affront to religion.

1.2.2.5 THE MUSLIM ERA

Islam encouraged the search for knowledge. Muslims translated ancient Greek texts. They absorbed Greek medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy. They criticized Greek science and made innovations of their own. They were interested in numbers and they created the discipline of algebra. During military conflicts between Christian medieval Europe and the Muslim world in Andalusia and Palestine, Europe came to discover treasures of scientific knowledge that Muslims had. Muslims expelled from Andalusia left behind many manuscripts that were translated by monks into Latin.

1.2.3 KNOWLEDGE SINCE THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE

1.2.3.1 FROM THE EUROPEAN RENNAISSANCE TO THE 17^th CENTURY

Starting with the renaissance Europeans rediscovered Greek science largely by learning from Muslims who had preserved and developed this knowledge. This led to a knowledge revival in Europe and the rise of Western Europe to being a world power. Roger Bacon (1220 - 1292 M) was an English Fransiscan philosopher who advocated experimental science. Many theoretical and conceptual break-throughs were realized during and after the renaissance. These were stimulated by practical observations and experimentation. Leonardo da Vinci, Corpenicus, Tycho, Kepler, and Galileo made observations that contradicted scientific concepts propagated by the Christian Church. Andreas Vesalius published ‘De humani corporis fabrica’ based on anatomical dissection that corrected many prevalent ideas about human anatomy. In 1628 William Harvey published ‘An anatomical exercise concerning the motion of the heart and blood in animals’ in which he described blood circulation that had been described centuries earlier by a Muslim physician in Damascus, Ibn al Nafees. In 1687 Newton published his ‘Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy’ in which he enunciated three laws of motion and the force of gravity. He thus was able to provide theoretical explanation for the observations of Corpenicus, Galileo and others who had studied planetary motion. Newton also made methodological contributions in his ‘Optiks’ published in 1704 by showing how hypotheses could be used in scientific investigations whose results could lead to scientific theories. Newtonian mechanics later wholly mathematized was dominant in the next three centuries. Scientific societies were established to study the new knowledge that was accumulating. The Royal Society of London for the Promotion of Natural Knowledge was set up in 1662. The Academie des Sciences was set up in Paris in 1666.

1.2.3.2 THE 18^th and 19^th CENTURIES

The new spirit of scientific inquiry and experimentation in Europe also triggered the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution of the 18^th and 19^th centuries was not a direct application of the newly discovered scientific knowledge. The revolution was in the textile, metallurgical, and transport industries whose scientific basis was already known.  It was not until the end of the 19^th century that science made direct contributions to industry especially in metallurgy, dyes, and the electric motor.

In 1820 Hans Christian Orsted showed that electric and magnetic forces were related. Michael Faraday extended this observation by studying the transformation of one form of energy into another one. This and later observations led to the principle of conservation of energy. By the end of the 19^th century all force transformations could be described mathematically.

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier explained the role of oxygen in combustion and triggered a revolution in chemistry. John Dalton’s discovery that elements differed in atomic weight led to discovery of many new elements. These were arranged according to their properties in a periodic table first devised by a Russian chemist called Dimitri Mendeleyev.

In the 18^th century Carl von Linne described a rational system for classifying and naming organisms. Jean-Baptiste Chevalier de Lamark proposed the idea that organisms could change into others a position contrary to the teachings of the Bible. The idea was picked up by Charles Darwin who proposed evolution and natural selection in 1859. Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden in 1838 proposed the cell theory. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch pioneered the germ theory of disease that led immediately to practical methods of disease control.

1.2.3.3 20^th CENTURY

 The 20^th century also witnessed many theoretical break-throughs. Albert Eistein showed that mass and energy were interchangeable and that time and distance were relative. Werner Eisenberg proposed the uncertainty principle ie that you can not know both the location and speed of an object accurately at the same time.

UNIT 1.3

NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE

1.3.1.0 BASIC TERMINOLOGY

1.3.1.1 COGNITION

The term cognition is used to refer to the process or act of knowing. It covers all mental processes and experiences involved in knowing which are: perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, reasoning, and judgment.

1.3.1.2 HUMAN MIND

The human mind works like a computer in acquiring, processing, storing, and retrieving information all under the guidance of an inner spiritual force.

1.3.1.3 SCIENCE

The term science in used to refer knowledge relating to the physical world based on observation and experimentation.

1.3.1.4 TERMS RELATED TO KNOWLEDGE

There are other terms used in connection with knowledge such as: wisdom, insight, opinion, speculation, certainty, remembrance, awareness, evidence, truth, and world-view. There are many forms of knowledge: knowledge of human life, knowledge of animal life, knowledge of the earth, knowledge of the seas and the oceans, knowledge of astronomy, knowledge of agriculture, knowledge of numbers, knowledge of counting, knowledge of addition, knowledge of multiplication, knowledge of subtraction, and knowledge of division, and knowledge of the Creator.

1.3.1.5 TERMS RELATED TO LACK OF KNOWLEDGE

There are terms that are associated with lack of knowledge: ignorance, doubt, speculation, whims, and falsehood. Lack of knowledge is called ignorance. Ignorance can be simple when the person knows he does not know. It is compounded if the ignorant person is not aware of his ignorance. The term ignorance has been used to refer to a state of ignorance with respect to specific information or explanation. This state of ignorance could be temporary ending with the acquisition of the missing information or explanation. The term has also been used as an attribute of a person who may have some moral reason for ignorance.

The extreme form of doubt is an unformulated doubt. A formulated doubt is better than an unformulated one and involves several alternatives but the human does not have the ability to tell which of them is valid or true. Speculation is doubtful and uncertain knowledge that is at a higher level than doubt. A higher level of speculation is when a human has strong inclination to believe a supposition to be true but this does not reach the level of absolute certainty.

 

1.3.2.0 CHARACTERIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE

1.3.2.1 SUPREMACY OF KNOWLEDGE:

Knowledge has supremacy over everything else. Knowledge is the basis for leadership. Those who know are a grade higher than those who do not know. Possessing correct knowledge is a virtue.

1.3.2.2 GRADES OF KNOWLEDGE

There are grades of knowledge. Certain knowledge is the highest grade. It is certain with no doubts and represents finality. The next grade is empirical knowledge. This is based on observation by human senses that are not perfect. Scientific empirical knowledge being based on human observation using imperfect sensory organs and interpretation by imperfect human intellect cannot reach the level of absolute certainty. We therefore call it empirical certainty. In most scientific measurements the level of absolute certainty cannot be reached. In medical work treatments are based on evidence that is classified as at a high level of speculative truth but not absolute certainty because a higher level of certainty cannot be reached.

1.3.2.3 EVIDENCE-BASED KNOWLEDGE:

True knowledge must be evidence-based. Those who make claims or allegations are challenged to produce their evidence.

1.3.2.4 VARIATION IN AMOUNT OF KNOWLEDGE:

Human knowledge is potentially wide and is continuously expanding. The limit of knowledge is with the Creator. An individual or community can only know a little bit of the knowledge and must have the humility to know and acknowledge that there is a lot that is not known. There is a difference in knowledge (quantity and quality) among humans as individuals and as communities. Some humans know more than others. Many do not know. A few individuals possess very deep knowledge.

1.3.2.5 OWNERSHIP OF KNOWLEDGE:

Any human knowledge is public property. Knowledge is not property that can be traded. It is a common property of all and those who have it must disseminate it to others. Payments made to teachers and researchers are not in exchange for the knowledge they have; they are for the purposes of maintaining them and their families so that they may concentrate on research and teaching. It is unethical to hide or try to monopolize knowledge.

1.3.2.5 DEVIATION FROM KNOWLEDGE

It is obligatory to act according to knowledge. Knowledge is always the source of strength and leadership if used well and with good intentions. Deviation from the truth represented by knowledge is severely condemned. It is better to get knowledge and understanding than to follow blindly. Blind following contradicts true knowing.

1.3.2.6 KNOWLEDGE AMONG NON-HUMANS:

Knowledge is not confined to humans. Spiritual beings (angels and jinn) have limited knowledge. Living animals also have some forms of knowledge. We have no textual or scientific evidence for existence of knowledge in plants or micro-organisms. Our thinking is that knowledge does not exist in plants or micro-organisms because they lack purposive and pre-meditated action. Purposive action is found only in humans, animals, and spiritual beings.

 

1.3.3.0 THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

1.3.3.1 DEFINITION OF EPISTEMOLOGY:

Epistemology is the science of knowledge. It is the study of the origin, nature, methods, and limits of knowledge. Epistemology is a major branch of philosophy. The aim of epistemological studies is certainty.

1.3.3.2 SCOPE OF EPISTEMOLOGY

Epistemology exists to deal with several philosophical questions. Epistemology is necessary to understand phenomena because reality is different from appearance and perception is different from knowledge. Epistemology seeks to establish whether a claim is true and what evidence can be used to prove it.

Epistemology also deals with sources of knowledge. Knowledge may be innate or learned, rational (based on reason) or empirical (based on sensory experience), based on faith vs based on reason. Epistemology also deals with the concept or an idea and how it relates to knowledge.

Knowledge can be of ‘what’ and of ‘how’.

Propositions about knowledge can be a priori (exists before experience) vs. a posteriori (based on experience), analytic vs synthetic, tautological (restating the same thing in another way) or significant (new and additional information), logical vs factual, acquaintance (based on personal experience) vs. description (transmitted knowledge), description vs justification, certainty (true) vs knowledge (the known may be true or not true).

1.3.4.0 SOME TERMINOLOGY USED IN EPISTEMOLOGY

1.3.4.1 CONCEPT

A concept is a logical entity used in logical or philosophical analysis and to aid understanding. Concept formation involves sorting human experience and ideas into classes or rules. Concepts are abstract as contrasted to concrete classification based on sensory input. In practice humans mix the abstract and the concrete in usual classification of things. Humans can learn concepts instead of working them out for themselves. Concept formation improves with age from childhood but declines in late age. Language is a very important tool in concept formation and development. Computers can be programmed to form concepts (ie make classifications according to some rules).

1.3.4.2 PARADIGM

Paradigm is a term used by many people to convey different meanings. It is generally used to refer to a thought pattern in a discipline of knowledge. Paradigm shifts occur when new discoveries or explanations bring about new patterns of thought

1.3.4.3 INDUCTION

Induction is reasoning from the part to reach conclusions about the whole or from the specific to the general or from the individual to the universal. It is the method used by empirical science.

1.3.4.4 DEDUCTION

Deduction is reasoning starting from premises to reach conclusions with the conclusions necessarily following from the premise. Deduction has also been defined as reasoning from the general to the specific of from the universal to the particular.

1.3.4.5 OBJECTIVITY

Objectivity is staying on the path of truth and not being swayed by whims and desires

1.3.5.0 RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE

1.3.5.1 THE GENERAL CONCEPT OF RELATIVITY

The concept of relativity has caused much confusion both in social and natural sciences. What needs to be emphasized is that some knowledge and some facts are absolute and do not change by time or space. Other facts change when the frame of reference changes. Relativity refers to this change of facts with the change of the reference frame. Thus for complete description of a physical fact, the frame used must be defined. The problem facing contemporary epistemology is that nothing is fixed or is absolute. Everything is relative and changeable. In such a flux there is no meaning to the concept of truth.

1.3.5.2 RELATIVITY IN PHYSICS

In physics the term relativity refers to differences in measurements by different observers who are in motion relative to one another. The special theory of relativity states that the speed of light will be the same as measured by different observers. The general theory of relativity asserts that physical laws are the same for all observers.

1.3.6.0 PROBABILITY OF KNOWLEDGE:

1.3.6.1 LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN SENSES

The concept of probability concretizes the limitations of human senses. Knowledge based on human senses is approximate. The aim of scientific research is to increase the probability of truth but cannot reach perfect truth. No scientific fact is absolutely right or correct.

1.3.6.2 PROBABILITY OF TRUTH

Each has a calculable probability of being correct. The higher this probability, the nearer it is to the truth. The probabilistic nature of knowledge arises out of limitations of human observation and interpretation of physical phenomena. The challenge to intellectuals is to relate the concept of probability to the concept of grades of knowledge mentioned before.

1.3.7.0 PAST AND FUTURE OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE

1.3.7.1 FAILURES IN HUMAN KNOWLEDGE:

There have been periods in human history when humans deviated from the correct ways of getting knowledge and therefore lived in ignorance and superstition. Neglect of empirical observation and experimentation led to deficiency of empirical knowledge. Failure to use their intellect properly deprived humans of full understanding of empirical knowledge.

1.3.7.2 THE FUTURE:

Rapid growth of the corpus of human knowledge in the past 150 years is several-fold the growth of knowledge since the start of recorded human history. This momentum is likely to continue into the next century. It could slow down or stop altogether when human mistakes, social or physical, lead to destruction or drastic change of the ecosystem and human social organization as we know them today. History is full of examples of previous civilizations that attained a high degree of scientific and social sophistication only to fail and fall later.

1.3.8.0 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE: GENERAL CONCEPTS

1.3.8.1 ALL KNOWLEDGE IS FROM THE CREATOR

It is a cardinal principle that all knowledge is from the Creator. Humans can get it in a passive way from revelations or in an active way by empirical observation and experimentation.

1.3.8.2 INNATE AND ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE:

Humans have some knowledge even before birth. A human baby has limited in-born knowledge that is mostly needed for the intuitive and instinctive biological functions needed for survival at that tender age. Most human knowledge is learned. The learning can take place at the level of the individual or the community.

1.3.8.3 THREE SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

Revelation, reason, and empirical observation of the universe are the three major sources of acquired knowledge. Humans throughout history have quenched their thirst for knowledge from all the three sources. In terms of quantity, empirical knowledge comes first. In terms of quality revealed knowledge comes first. There is close interaction and inter-dependence between revelation, inference, and empirical observation. Reason is needed to understand revelation and reach conclusions from empirical observations. Revelation protects reason from mistakes and provides it with information about the unseen. Reason cannot, unaided, fully understand the empirical world.

1.3.9.0 ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE

1.3.9.1 OBLIGATION TO GET KNOWLEDGE

Humans are enjoined to get knowledge of essential things. Every man or woman is obliged to get the minimum essential knowledge to be able to live in society. Some knowledge is individually obligatory whereas the other is communally obligatory

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1.3.9.2 SEARCH FOR KNOWLEDGE

Seeking to know is an inner human need that satisfies human curiosity. Seeking knowledge is a life long process from birth to death. Knowledge must be sought wherever it is even if in far-away lands.

1.3.9.3 PRIMARY ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE

Some humans have the ability to study and get knowledge from its primary sources. These are obliged to get knowledge and in turn teach it to others.

1.3.9.4 SECONDARY ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE

Most people, however, do not get knowledge directly from its sources. They have to follow others who have the knowledge. The process of following has both positive and negative aspects. For those unable to get knowledge, following is required. They however cannot follow blindly. They must ascertain that those they follow have correct knowledge from the valid and primary sources.

1.3.9.5 METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE

Humans are given tools for getting knowledge from its sources. The most important are the sense organs that enable humans to get knowledge from experimentation or observation of the universe. The intellect is also a tool of getting knowledge from revelation and empirical observation. A few people have a controversial idea that it is possible to get knowledge without use of senses or the intellect.

The learning can be the result of observation by the sense of vision and the sense of hearing. Learning can also be by use of intellectual / logical operations or the result of teaching. Humans learn from transmitted knowledge or experience. They can also learn from their own empirical experience and the interpretation or understanding of that experience. Transmitted knowledge can be from revelation or from past history and experience. A lot of knowledge about social interaction is learned passively.

1.3.10.0 EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION AS A SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE

1.3.10.1 THE UNIVERSE IS A SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE

The universe or cosmos around humans is a source of knowledge. Humans were given senses to enable them get empirical knowledge from their environment.

1.3.10.2 THE CONCEPT OF CAUSALITY

The concept of causality underlies most knowledge obtained by empirical observation. Simply stated this concept asserts that there is a material cause for every physical event that a human observes. He may be or not be aware of the cause but can not deny its existence.

 

1.3.11.0 INTELLECT AS A SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE

1.3.11.1 INTELLECT AS A TOOL OF KNOWLEDGE

Intellect distinguishes humans from other living things on earth. It enables them to understand and correctly interpret the sensory perceptions. Intellect is so important that its misuse or under-use are severely condemned. Intellect can be a primary source of knowledge in a few instances like mathematical knowledge. In most cases the intellect is not in itself a primary source of knowledge. It is a tool that enables humans to generate deeper knowledge and understanding from the primary sources: revelation and empirical observation. Reason can be looked at as a series of intellectual processes.

1.3.11.2 INTELLECTUAL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN KNOWLEDGE

The most often referred to intellectual process is that of thinking. Thinking is closely related to empirical observation using the human senses. Thinking can be by looking. Humans are ordered to look at the cosmos and at themselves. Humans are enjoined to think about creation and its signs. Understanding is part of the thinking process. The thinking process can be extended backward in time by thinking about history and the lessons garnered from it. 

1.3.11.3 DEDUCTIVE and INDUCTIVE LOGIC

Basic analytical intellectual processes can be deductive or inductive. They are used either in parallel or in sequence depending on the problem being tackled. Induction tends to dominate in the sciences.

1.3.11.4 INTELLECT and GUIDANCE

In a natural state the human intellect is enough to lead to guidance. It can lead to misguidance if there are corrupting influences in the environment or in the individual. Correct knowledge is the truth. Human observation and interpretation can be biased away from this truth by human desires/inclinations.

 

1.3.12.0 CONTROVERSIAL SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

12.1 CONTROVERSY

There is lack of unanimity on the following as additional sources of knowledge: inspiration, intuition, instinct, geomancy, and dreams,. The controversy is not whether they are sources of knowledge but whether they are sources independent of the three mentioned before.

1.3.12.2 INSPIRATION

Knowledge can be inspired. It seems that humans before birth receive knowledge about right and wrong by inspiration. Inspiration however cannot be a basis for enjoining or prohibiting actions. Inspiration cannot be accepted as evidence in law. The results of inspiration are not always consistent. We however cannot deny the possibility of some humans being inspired.

1.3.12.3 INTUITION

Intuitive knowledge is most likely part of empirical knowledge that is stored in the human subconscious and is retrieved and used on given occasions.  Humans and animals have instinctive knowledge at birth. For example nobody teaches a newborn how to suck at the mother's breast. Animals rely more on instinctive knowledge than do humans. Humans have less need for instinct because of their highly developed cerebral cortex that has more flexibility in facing and solving problems.

1.3.12.4 GEOMANCY

Geomancy is a discredited science today. It assumes ability of a human to adduce knowledge of a person’s character by incomplete observation for example looking at a person’s face and deducing what type of character he has or what experiences he has gone through. This is an unscientific approach that could lead to wrong or even dangerous conclusions. There is no empirical proof of its validity as a source of knowledge.

1.3.12.5 DREAMS

Views about the truth of dreams fall into two extremes. Materialists deny dreams whereas others believe in them and spend efforts interpreting them so that they can rely on them as sources of knowledge, guidance, and information. The truth is between the two extremes.

1.3.13.0 INVALID SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

1.3.13.1 TRUTH BY COINCIDENCE

Magic & sorcery, astrology, foretelling, and other forms of superstition are not sources of true knowledge. They may lead to correct and verifiable facts but only by chance and coincidence. They most often lead to wrong and misguiding facts.

1.3.13.2 SORCERY

The term sorcery is used to refer to use of magical tricks with additional psychological conditioning that can lead to real psychological effects in people who believe that they are victims of sorcery; there are no effects on those who do not believe the superstition.

1.3.13.3 MAGIC

Magic refers to use of tricks to create visual or other types of illusions. The uninitiated may be misled into believing in the existence of supernatural power because of the illusions.

1.3.13.4 ASTROLOGY

Astrology is the magical forerunner of the modern science of astronomy. Astrologers pretend to predict events in a person's life by studying the movement of stars.

1.3.13.5 FORETELLING

Foretelling is an invalid source of knowledge because the future cannot be known with certainty. The most that can be done is forecasting the future based on available empirical evidence.

1.3.14.0 CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE

14.1 CONCEPT and PURPOSES OF CLASSIFICATION

Knowledge can be classified in different ways. Cross-classifications are possible. Below are given several criteria of classification that can be used. We can not say that one is better than the other. What matters is the purpose behind the classification.

 

1.3.14.2 ON THE BASIS OF THE METHOD OF ACQUISITION

INNATE AND ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE

Innate knowledge is inborn. Acquired knowledge is acquired post-natally. Knowledge of good and bad is innate in humans however they can be confused. That is why acquired knowledge is needed to guide them in the gray areas. Acquired knowledge can be from revelation or from empirical observation. The two sources of acquired knowledge reinforce the innate knowledge as well as reinforce each other.

A PRIORI and A POSTERIORI KNOWLEDGE

A priori knowledge is knowledge not based on experience whereas a posteriori knowledge is based on experience. Innate knowledge is part of a priori knowledge.

1.3.14.3 ON THE BASIS OF SOURCE

RATIONAL and TRANSMITTED

Classically, knowledge was classified as transmitted knowledge which includes revelations and non-transmitted which includes empirical observation and rational reasoning

EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION

Knowledge can be classified as knowledge of the seen and knowledge of the unseen. Humans know only the seen. They do not know the unseen. The unseen can be absolute or relative. Humans cannot in any way know the absolute unseen except through revelation. The relative unseen is something that is knowable by humans by taking certain measures. For example the contents of a closed box are unknown by a human but when the box is opened, the contents can become known. It is however deceptive for a human to claim with certainty and affirmatively to know the contents of a closed box if he has no evidence through the senses.

1.3.14.4 ON THE BASIS OF LEARNING and USE

ON BASIS OF OBLIGATION

It is obligatory for women and men to get knowledge. This obligation differs for different types of knowledge. Some knowledge is considered a collective obligation. Other knowledge is considered individual obligation.

ON BASIS OF UTILITY:

Knowledge can be useful. There is no concept of knowledge that is not useful but is harmless. Knowledge that has no immediate or foreseeable use is considered harmful. Sorcery is for example harmful knowledge. All correct knowledge is useful. However even useful knowledge can turn harmful is not used properly.

ON THE BASIS OF APPLICATION

Knowledge can be basic or applied. The distinction is sometimes more theoretical than real.

 

1.3.14.5 ON THE BASIS OF NATURE, CONTENT, and METHODOLOGY

ON BASIS OF LEGALITY:

Most branches of knowledge are legal and are encouraged. For example study of medicine and science are legal pursuits. On the other hand study of sorcery is illegal because the knowledge is harmful. Between these two clear extremes are disciplines that are good or bad depending on how their knowledge is used. Study of the chemistry of ethanol is legal if it will be used for industrial purposes. It will rapidly become illegal if it will be used to make beer and other alcoholic drinks.

ON BASIS OF SUBJECT MATTER:

Sciences can be divided into the biological & physical. Biological sciences study living things: animals, plants, and micro-organisms. Physical sciences study inanimate things: the earth, water and the seas, astronomy, mathematics, agriculture. Some disciplines are methodological without a coherent and substantive subject matter for example epidemiology and mathematics. Other disciplines are substantive for example clinical medicine.

1.3.15.0 LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE: INNATE LIMITATIONS

1.3.15.1 LIMITED KNOWLEDGE

Human knowledge in all spheres and disciplines of knowledge is limited. Humans know some things and not others. Humans do not normally reach the full capacity of knowledge because of other limitations. One of these limitations is failure to exert themselves to the maximum in the search for knowledge.

1.3.15.2 LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN SENSES

Human senses can be easily deceived. Human vision is limited. Human senses of hearing, smelling, tasting are relatively insensitive and some animals have more acute senses.

1.3.15.3 LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN INTELLECT

Human intellect has limitations in interpreting correct sensory perceptions. There are basic limitations in the neurochemical functions in the brain. Humans also have a limited data-base of prior knowledge to be able to interpret all new knowledge correctly.

1.3.16.0 LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE: THE UNSEEN

1.3.16.1 TYPES OF THE UNSEEN

Humans cannot know the unseen. The unseen can be absolute or relative. The absolute, such as the day of death is known only by the Creator. Humans have no access to absolute unseen except through revelations. The relative unseen can be known by some people in favorable time and space circumstances and not others or can be known if special and appropriate instrumentation is used. The whole purpose of scientific research is to roll back the field of the relative seen. The relative unseen can be contemporaneous, ie things that exist at the moment but which are unknown. It may be in past or historical events. It can be in the future.

    

1.3.16.2 THE PAST AND THE FUTURE

Humans can operate in limited time frames. The past and the future are unknowable with certainty. Both are part of the unseen. The only true and valid source of knowledge about the past is revelation.

 

1.3.17.0 LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE: CHANGES & TRANSITIONS

1.3.17.1 SPEED

Humans operate in a limited speed frame at both the conceptual and sensory levels. Ideas cannot be digested and processed if they are generated too slowly or too quickly. Humans cannot visually perceive very slow or very rapid events. Very slow events like the revolution of the earth or its rotation are perceived as if they are not happening.

1.3.17.2 CHANGE OF MATTER-ENERGY

Modern physics has discovered that matter and energy are interchangeable. One form of matter can change into another form just as one form or energy can change into another.

 

1.3.18.0 OTHER LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE

1.3.18.1 RETENTION OF KNOWLEDGE

Human memory is limited. Knowledge acquired decays or may be lost altogether. Humans would have been more knowledgeable if they had perfect memory.

1.3.18.2 DISTORTION OF KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge may be distorted by the processes of its acquisition. Human senses and intellect are limited and may therefore lead to distorted knowledge. Knowledge may also be distorted by personal whims.

UNIT 1.4

METHODOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE

1.4.1.0 IMPORTANCE OF METHODOLOGY

1.4.1.1 PROTECTION FROM MISTAKES / BIAS:

Methodology is needed to be able to protect the researcher from mistakes due to inconsistencies of personal bias. Study of methodology is rapidly emerging as an important and independent field.

1.4.1.2 DISCIPLINE DEFINITION

Methodology and not content defines a discipline; a discipline cannot be recognized as independent until it evolved a methodology.

1.4.1.3 A COMMON METHODOLOGY

There is a methodological framework common to all disciplines since there is unity of knowledge and the source of knowledge is one. This common methodology can be reached by deep study and reflection of any discipline.

1.4.2.0 METHODOLOGY: A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1.4.2.1 PRE-HISTORY

Science and technology are as old as humanity. The first recorded scientific activity was teaching Adam the names of things. Naming and classification are basics for scientific research and communication. The historical record is silent after that first event. We however know from archaeological evidence that a lot of empirical discoveries were made. Human curiosity and the search for practical solutions to problems of life led to discoveries by empirical observation or trial and error. In this way early man discovered fire, agriculture, animal husbandry, manufacture and use of weapons.

1.4.2.2 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

The science and technology (S&T) we have today is a product of human endeavor to which all known civilizations contributed: ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Roman empire, Phoenicia, Persia, China, and India. These societies were the first to develop agriculture and a sedentary life-style. The need to solve practical problems as well as the stability and order that existed in settled communities allowed the development and spread of ideas on S&T. The beginnings of the empirical methodology can be traced to these communities. Knowledge was able to spread easily because these communities had also developed writing.

1.4.2.3 TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE TO THE MUSLIM WORLD

Muslims played a crucial role in preserving and improving ancient Greek learning and passing it to Europe just before the scientific revolution at the start of the 16^th century H. The Umayyad Khalif, Khalid Ibn Yazid, started translations of Greek science and philosophy into Arabic. This effort intensified in the 3^rd century H under the Abassid rulers. Muslims became leaders of science in its various disciplines by correcting defects in Greek science but also making innovative additions of their own.

1.4.2.4 MUSLIM CONTRIBUTIONS TO METHODOLOGY

Before Islam, Greek scientific methodology founded by Aristotle was dominant. It was based on logic and definitions. Greek logic was more deductive than inductive. Muslims on the other hand were inspired to use inductive logic and empirical observation.  Al Hasan ibn Haytham depended on experimentation, observation, and induction before Roger Bacon wrote about the empirical methodology. Jabir Ibn Hayyaan used experimentation and developed a logical structure for reaching conclusions.

1.4.2.5 TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE TO EUROPE

During the renaissance or age of enlightenment, the suppression of science ended. At the same time Muslim science, carrying with it the empirical method, reached Europe through translations or study of Europeans at Muslim universities in Spain and other countries. It is possible but not proved that it was the Muslim influence that triggered the intellectual and knowledge renaissance of Europe which was a pre-cursor to the scientific revolution in Europe of the period 1500-1750 CE. Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the first European to write about the empirical methodology, was repeating ideas and concepts that Muslim scientists had already elaborated. Francis Bacon (1561-1626 M) In his book ‘Novum Organum’ described the scientific method depending on method and order of empirical knowledge. He laid primary emphasis on observation as the only source of valid knowledge.

1.4.3.0 CONCEPTS AND PARADIGMS

1.4.3.1 THE PARADIGM OF UNITY

The unity paradigm has the following concepts: unity of truth, unity of knowledge, unity of life, and unity of humanity. The concept of unity is the bedrock for causal relations and a rational predictable universe. Science shows that the complex universe is actually a simple one made up of a few fairly identical building blocks called atoms, sub-atomic particles and molecules. The natural laws that govern the interactions among these particles are simple and are usually written as simple mathematical equations. Under the unity paradigm revelation and reason are complementary. Since knowledge and truth are a unity, both revelation and reason are searching for the same goal of truth. The unity paradigm also implies an all-embracing aspect. Since everything has the same creator and one source, there must be order and harmony since that creator knows all His creation. The concept of unity liberates the human intellect from stagnation, dependency, blind following. It frees the human from being a slave of his own whims and fancies. It encourages innovation by emphasizing the unity of the universe and its wide expanse. It is the final guarantor against methodological biases because the human observing and interpreting natural phenomena is in the same frame of reference as the events being studied.

 

1.4.3.2 PHYSICAL LAWS

Science is empirical observation of the environment using sense organs and interpretation of the observations. The human intellect is used in the observation and especially the interpretation. Science unravels causal relations between phenomena. The principle of causality, ie a physical phenomenon must have a preceding humanly understandable cause, is very consistent. There are however exceptions when the principle is suspended. These exceptions involve intervention of divine will beyond human understanding in the form of miracles. Humans can ignore the principle of causality with the consequence of lack of creativity, lack of innovation, and lack of activity and they lapse into a stuporous state of stagnation. The physical laws of the universe are of 2 types: those known by Creator alone and those knowable by humans. The laws in the world of the unseen are different from those in the world of the seen; the former are beyond human reach but the latter can be reached by humans through experimentation and observation.

 

1.4.3.3 REASON and EMPIRICISM

INDUCTIVE METHODOLOGY

The Greeks made many contributions to science but at the same time did a disservice to it by not emphasizing the inductive methodology. Most break-throughs in S&T today are a result of inductive processes. Interaction with Greek science did actually hamper methodological development for centuries.

BASIS FOR EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION AND INTERPRETATION

The inductive method reaches conclusions by looking at nature. The entire cosmos was put at the service of humans for their own benefit. They therefore must observe and investigate the earths and heavens to discover causal relations that can be manipulated fir human advantage. Observation is accompanied by interpretation. Use of evidential knowledge is emphasized. Biased observation is condemned.

 

1.4.3.4 OBJECTIVITY

DESCRIPTION

The concept of objectivity promotes valid and un-biased research. The straight path unaffected by personal biases and prejudices leads to success. The straight path is defined by measures of central tendency to the golden mean or equilibrium. The straight path can also be defined negatively as rejection of what leads to bias such as personal whims. False knowledge, blind following, mistakes, and forgetting can all be causes of deviation from the straight path. Diseases of the heart such as prejudice can color and distort objective observation and interpretation resulting in bias. There are practical measures for avoiding mistakes such as insisting on a written record and calling witnesses. Use of evidence protects against false conclusions.

CAUSES OF LACK OF OBJECTIVITY

It is virtually impossible to be objective if you do not stick to and follow a definite methodology. Deviation from methodology may be caused by personal biases or inclinations or personal interests. A person who does not have a methodology cannot be expected to be objective.

1.4.4.0 THE EMPIRICAL METHOD

1.4.4.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EMPIRICAL METHODOLOGY

Empiricism is basing knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes on practical experience of the sense organs. Exclusive empiricism thus defined rejects knowledge from intuition, revelation, conjecture, and reasoning. Absolute empiricism denies existence of a priori knowledge.

The European use of the empirical method has a distinguishing characteristics of reliance only on empirical observation as the source of knowledge with rejection of any other sources such as history, and transmitted knowledge. The following characteristics of the empirical method are alleged but may not always hold in practice. The method is open-ended. Theories are abandoned if no longer sustained by facts. It is methodological (systematic, repeatable, and consistent). It is accurate, precise, and objective.

1.4.4.2 USE OF HYPOTHESES IN THE EMPIRICAL METHODOLOGY

Scientific investigation starts with hypothesis formulation. The hypotheses are tested by empirical observation and deductions/inductions are made. Ibn Haytham, in his ‘Book of Optics’, illustrates the use of the empirical method. He did a lot of experiments and interpreted the findings. He realized the importance of mathematics. He used a combination of both inductive and deductive logic. He formulated hypotheses in 2 ways: observation and analogy. 

In his observation of natural phenomena, he observed that light passing through a hole has the shape of that hole and therefore formed a hypothesis that light travels in straight lines. He concluded by analogy that since the moon gets its light from the sun, the stars cannot get light from the sun. To verify the hypotheses about the stars above, Ibn Hytham made the observation that unlike the moon, the shapes of the stars did not change with distance from the sun. He concluded that the stars must emit light of their own. Ibn Hytham moved from experiment to generalize into a law by making 2 conclusions. The first was that light of whatever type travels in straight lines. The second was that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal are in the same plane.

 

1.4.4.3 STRENGTH OF THE EMPIRICAL METHODOLOGY

The major strength of the empirical methodology is that it enables rapid growth of knowledge.

1.4.4.4 THE EMPIRICAL METHODOLOGY: A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

EMPIRISISM IS INNATE

Empiricism could be said to be an innate character of humans that they share with animals. Humans always want to know the explanation of natural phenomena and what relates one event to another. In the absence of empirical knowledge or wahy they have sometimes resorted to superstition.

MUSLIM PIONEERS OF THE EMPIRICAL METHOD

Greek science was conjectural and hypothetical. Greeks preferred reasoning and looked down upon perceptual knowledge. They would spend years in their comfortable arm-chairs reasoning instead of going out of the room and making observation or setting up a simple experiment to close the issue. Aristotle for example never thought of testing his theory about the speed of fall of heavy and light objects. Muslims criticized Greek logic.

Muslim scientists in the golden era of Islam were pioneers of the systematic use of the empirical method. Muslims developed a complete empirical methodology in the form of. Allama Muhammad Iqbal in his ‘Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam’ argued that the empirical method was not a European discovery. He quoted contributions of Ghazzali, Ishraqi, Ibn Taymiyyat, Abubakr al Razi, and Ibn Hazm. Other pioneers of the empirical method were: Ibn Sina, Al Biruni, al Kindi (d. 260H), Jabir Ibn Hayyan (d. 200H), Ibn Haytham (d. 340H), al Khawarizmi (d. 387H).

EUROPEAN PIONEERS OF THE EMPIRICAL METHOD

European history ascribes ‘discovery’ of the empirical method to Roger Bacon (1561-1626H). Other European pioneers of the method such as San Simon (1760-1825 M), August Kant (1798-1857 M), Emile Durkheim (1858-1917 M) built on Bacon’s ideas.

1.4.5.0 WEAKNESSES IN THE USE OF THE EMPIRICAL METHODOLOGY

1.4.5.1 PROBLEM IN USE AND NOT IN ESSENCE

The empirical methodology is innately good but the manner and context of its use lead to the following 4 problems: biases due to a priori assumptions, limitations of observation by human senses, limitations of human intellect, and lack of an integrating paradigm

1.4.5.2 BIASES DUE TO A PRIORI ASSUMPTIONS

European use of the empirical method has many biases: A priori assertions or non-assertions, (assertions by default) bias the selection of fields/issues of investigation, formulation of hypotheses, selection of hypotheses for testing, reporting of data, interpretation of data, and use of information.

The source of frustration with empiricism is that some assertions are understood but are not stated explicitly so that the uninitiated may not recognize their existence. Materialist thought has several manifestations as positivism, empiricism, and pragmatism. A materialistic view of the universe contradicts the view of duality of matter and spirit, mind and body, soul and intellect, philosophy and religion, and the here and the hereafter.

The theory of evolution evolved England in the 19^th century. It coincidentally provided ‘scientific’ justification for industrial exploitation for the less fit in Europe and the colonies by the fittest that alone had the right of survival. The theory has had a big impact on the thinking of many natural and social scientists. Scientific hypotheses, scientific language, and choice of what to study reflect an underlying assumption of the innate superiority of the most ‘evolved’ human species in Europe. 

Psychological leanings cause bias. Personal or group selfish interests can unconsciously lead to bias because of the dichotomy between science and morality.

The life of the scientist is not put in the equation. A scientist is a prisoner of his culture. Many of the leading scientists were morally corrupt even psychologically sick yet their theories and discoveries were not suspected. There is an implied unscientific assumption that a person who tells lies in his ordinary life will not do so about his laboratory research. The character and moral worth of the investigator is not taken into account when judging the validity of the data on the assertion that science is morally/ethically neutral. This is the cause of so much scientific fraud most of which is undetectable. There is a need to check the moral worth of the researcher in the assessment of any research data to void the possibility of scientific fraud.

Regarding natural laws as final and accepting the laws of evolution that explain the start and progress of life as chance or accidental events make the scientist consider the existence of a creator superfluous. No empirical experiment can be set up to test the proposition yet there are observable indications especially in empirical behavior of humans that there is a super-natural power.

Diseases of the heart can lead to biased empirical observations. Among these diseases are rancor, hatred, and deception. Medical literature is replete with biased research and conclusions that associate undesirable diseases and conditions like low IQ & low educational achievement with the disadvantaged races or ethnic groups. In most cases it is the poor physical and social conditions of the disadvantaged that cause the disease or the conditions and not their race or ethnicity.

1.4.5.3 LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION BY HUMAN SENSES

Empirical knowledge is relativistic and probabilistic. Science can be too arrogant in stating its conclusions as established facts when the observations on which they are based may be wrong. Empiricism depends on human senses. Human senses are limited in their observation and can be deceived; this failure is not cured by use of instruments because they are aids and extensions of the basic human senses. Both empiricists, those who assert that empirical experience is a source of knowledge, and rationalists, those who assert that human reason is source of knowledge, agree that there is no source of knowledge outside the human. The assertion that empirical knowledge is the only source of valid knowledge excludes 2 major fields of study: ultimate questions about the universe and human behavior.

There are ultimate questions about the universe that cannot be answered empirically or rationally. These questions about the universe include its start, its future, its end, its purpose of human life, the nature of life, the nature of death and the nature of after death. Human behavior cannot be explained empirically or rationally. No empirical experiment can be set up to investigate motivations of human behavior and human spiritual experiences.

The paradigm that does not recognize existence of limits to human senses and intellect cannot accept that some matters cannot be investigated empirically. A distinction is made between scientific assertions that can be investigated empirically and non-scientific assertions that cannot be investigated empirically. Matters classified as non-scientific are just ignored as if they do not exist. A proper approach would have been a declaration by the empiricists and rationalists that some questions lie outside the bounds of unaided human investigation. They would then have to consider other sources of knowledge about these matters for example revelation. 

The argument of secularist empiricists and rationalists rejecting anything that cannot be investigated empirically as unscientific is flawed. There are many phenomena in science that are believed but are not yet proved empirically. A good example is the disease of cholera. It was established that contaminated water was a cause of cholera and that the disease-causing agent is transferred from the sick to the healthy by means of such water. It was only later that the vibrio cholerae organism was isolated. By that time public health measures had already controlled out the disease in the industrialized countries. These measures did not depend on complete knowledge and had a measure of belief in the unseen yet no one disputed their effectiveness.

There are three sources of knowledge, two being primary and the third being dependent on the first two. Revelation and empirical observation are independent sources of knowledge and intellect in a dependent source of knowledge. Both revelation and empirical observation need intellect for understanding.

Revelation remains the absolute source since human senses and intellect are known by ordinary human experience to be fallible. The empirical method performs well in investigation of the present but is awfully incompetent in its historicity and futuristicity. Investigation of the past and the future requires knowledge of the unseen that comes only from revelation. The unseen can be absolute or relative. Empirical investigations continually roll back the frontiers of relative unseen but cannot even start looking into absolute unseen. The problem is that the modern use of the empirical method just assumes that un-investigatable matters just do not exist or are irrelevant. Untestable assertions are classified as unscientific.

Existence is at 5 levels: inner/real, empirical/perceived, imaginary, intellectual/abstract, and illusionary. The empirical method can only observe the empirical, the rest have to be inferred. It is therefore limited in the understanding of the whole existence. Modern empiricism, by looking at the human as only matter, does not have the tools to understand human duality as spirit and body. It fails in understanding causal relations in situations in which humans change the ecosystem and their own internal environment. Humans can create new facts that accord with their inner biases such that an investigator coming later is confused about the causal chain and cannot tell the correct order.

1.4.5.4 LACK OF BALANCE

The way science and technology are used today shows lack of balance which leads to transgression. We live in a world that is technologically advanced but lacks spiritual and social balance and the end-result is a lot of human misery and human suffering.

1.4.5.5 LACK OF PURPOSE

Technology seems to have become an automaton with its own dynamism that is sometimes not related to any understandable human purpose. It sometimes seems that we are building structures for amusement only with no underlying purpose.

1.4.5.6 LACK OF AN INTEGRATING PARADIGM

Too narrow specialization in science has resulted in a situation of knowing the parts and failing to put them together. Knowing the whole picture makes the study of the parts more meaningful and is the holistic approach. Empiricism as used does not acknowledge the basic assertions of unity that there is one creator for the universe and that therefore there must be an integrating paradigm for all human research and actions. A practical consequence of this is that one advance in one area is a catastrophe in another to the extent that many insightful scientists fear the ultimate destruction of the ecosystem. Industrialization causes air and water pollution. The modern society has destroyed the family. Increased material wealth has been associated with more stress and unhappiness. Nuclear energy generates electricity but is also a potential destruction of the whole universe if nuclear weapons are ever used.

1.4.5.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE HUMAN INTELLECT

Human intellect is necessary for interpretation and understanding of empirical observations. This intellect has limitations and there are matters like the human himself that lie outside its reach. A human cannot understand himself fully. There are transgressions in the use of reason that lead to false results. This occurs when reason is employed in areas that are exclusive for revelation.

UNIT 1.5

CRISIS OF KNOWLEDGE AND EDUCATION

1.5.1.0 MANIFESTATIONS OF THE CRISIS

1.5.1.1 MARGINALIZATION OF GENERAL EDUCATION

The intellectuals and the broadly-educated are marginalized in the material-driven industrial society in favor of people with narrow and specialized technical skills who are considered economically more productive. Technical education although vital does not cater for all needs of the society. The technically-educated without a broad education can be a danger when they work as a cog in machinery without the ability to understand or appreciate the consequences of their activities on the welfare of society and the environment. Teachers are no longer respected as important members of society; their leadership position has been taken by politicians, businessmen, and technicians. Teachers are despised and are among the lowest paid professions in the community. There is little respect for scholarship. Contempt and not prestige is the label of intellectuals. Wealth and power are considered more important that scholarship. The consequence has been migration of the brightest and most competent from educational institutions to politics and business where their efforts will be appreciated more.

1.5.1.2 NEGLECT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Empirical sciences are studied but not with the spirit of mastery, use and further development by research. The aim of the student is to get some facts, pass some examinations, and get a certificate that opens the door to lucrative employment. These students have skills but no vision or mission and they end up serving only their personal interests. There is no urge to research and extend the frontiers of knowledge. Home-grown technology is little and has little encouragement or prospects in the near future.

1.5.1.3 DUALITY

General education is suffering from the impact of incoherent and contradictory sources of knowledge. There is a dichotomy in the education system: traditional vs. imported. There are competing and contradictory world-views. The consequence of the various forms of duality is confusion in the minds of students and intellectual schizophrenia of the elite and society’s leadership. Integration of the 2 systems has failed or has been difficult in several countries because it has been mechanical and not conceptual.

1.5.1.4 IRRELEVANCE

Knowledge dispensed at great expense in many educational institutions is not relevant to the contemporary needs of society and can play no role in meeting the challenges. Irrelevance can be seen in the use of models and textbooks that are not relevant to the local problems.

 

1.5.1.5 DIVORCE FROM MORALITY

The education system aims at producing a technically-competent person who is not educated in the full sense of the word. The technical person may be a factory worker who carries out work in narrow and specialized areas and need not relate his activity to an integrated whole system. The technical person may not understand or appreciate the moral dimension of his work. De-emphasis of morality is responsible for the increasing unhealthy lifestyles. The youths are taught that values are relative and that there is no absolute evil. The criterion of judgment is anthropo-centric ie what the human likes, prefers, enjoys, or finds more comfortable of convenient.

1.5.1.6 BRAIN DRAIN

There are two types of brain drain. Some educated people move to Europe and America where they can get better facilities for their work and where they enjoy physical amenities and feel secure from any threats. Such people become very productive in their adopted countries and are a net loss. Some migrate away from their academic pursuits but stay within the country being engaged in business or politics. There are no attempts to reverse the brain drain by understanding the push and pull factors and doing something to reduce their effects. The main push factors are: no recognition of scientific work, being isolated from interaction with other scientists, poor or inadequate research facilities, and a poor socio-economic environment. The pull factors are largely the same as the push factors but working in the opposite direction.

1.5.2.0 INTEGRATION OF HEALTH IN THE EDUCATION SYSTEM

1.5.2.1 EDUCATION AND SOCIAL REFORM

Public Health started as a social reform movement in the 19^th century. By the start of the 20^th century it underwent a major paradigm shift when it became a science with the discovery of bacterial causes of disease. Since the discovery that chronic diseases were lifestyle dependent, public health returned to its previous social reform paradigm of working to change society and the individual. We have today sufficient technical knowledge to prevent most human disease. The only barrier is human will and human behavior. These can only be changed by education.

Social movements that succeeded in creating a permanent impact had the following characteristics: spread of knowledge among the masses, leading the masses to gain a new understanding of their social reality resulting in changes of attitudes and behaviors, mobilisation/organisation of the masses, change of social behavior, and maintaining continuity.

Social reform movements that failed dealt with symptoms and not the root problems; were reactive and not pro-active strategies; and failed to educate a critical number of the masses for successful change.

Knowledge is the missing dimension in social reform movements. Social reform movements unguided by correct knowledge and understanding will falter and fail or will be deviated from its original path. Real and permanent change must be from the bottom. A weak bottom leads to a weak top. A weak top has no inner ability to lead a revival. The bottom can only be mobilized and strengthened through knowledge. The top requires knowledge to create a vision and plan for its realization.

Reform requires knowledge, ideas and action related by the following mathematical equation: tajdid = idea + action. Action without knowledge and guiding ideas will not lead to true change. Ideas without action are not change at all. Reform requires and is preceded by a reform in knowledge to provide ideas and motivation on which to build. Reform starts with a change in both the methodology and content of knowledge.

A social change requires changes in attitudes, values, convictions and behaviors of a critical mass of the population. Attitudes, values, convictions, and behaviors are determined by the knowledge base. Good knowledge will lead to positive changes. Bad or inadequate knowledge will lead to negative changes. Societal changes without underlying change in knowledge and thought will be temporary and will soon lose sense of direction.

In the past knowledge change and transmission could occur in the informal sector. Today knowledge is transmitted by the formal school system. Efforts to change or reform knowledge must translate into efforts at reforming the school system.

 

1.5.2.2 THE NEW EDUCATIONAL STRATEGY

Vision

The vision of the knowledge strategy is an upright balanced person who understands and fulfils his role in creating a healthy society and a healthy environment. He participates actively and positively in building society (socially, culturally, and technologically). He understands that development activities must find a just equilibrium between material and spiritual, control of nature and preservation of the environment, technology and humanity.

Mission

The mission of the knowledge strategy is conceptual transformation of the education system from kindergarten to post graduate studies to provide knowledge, values, and attitudes necessary for healthy living.

Goals

The goals of conceptual transformation of knowledge are: to identify and eliminate parochial aspects of the basic paradigms of the disciplines of knowledge and reconstruct paradigms on the basis of objectivity and universality, to define objective research methodology for development of new knowledge, and to guide use of knowledge for the good of humanity and the environment. The goals of practical reform of the education system are to: abolish duality of education system and to make sure that traditional knowledge is integrated with scientific knowledge.

The desired system of knowledge will have the following characteristics. Everybody must have access to knowledge without discrimination based on gender or social class.  Learning must be free/affordable and continuous. Personal relations must exist between teacher and student so that morals are transmitted at the same time as knowledge.

Learning is an obligation for all. Essential knowledge is what each individual adult must know to live a healthy life. It is an individual obligation to acquire this knowledge. Communally obligatory knowledge is what the community as a whole needs to know in order to live healthily.

Teaching is an obligation. Those who have knowledge are obliged to teach and disseminate it. Useful knowledge must not be hidden from others but must be taught. Harmful knowledge should not be suppressed but should be known only to those able to handle it and not become confused. If it is completely suppressed and in unknown by anyone of the good people it may come into the community secretly and confuse the less educated. Some useful and correct knowledge should not be taught to the less educated who may be confused by it.

Goals of the school: Children are born in a state of purity. The way they are educated and brought up determines whether they will be good or bad. The scope of the school is wide and includes faith, intellectual, moral, social, and practical skills or attributes. Health education should emphasize critical thinking, reasoning; substantiation; observation of the world, and critical analysis. It should discourage blind following and rote learning.

Socialization: The school is a socializing agent. It is a laboratory for reform of the total society.