001020L - ISLAMIZATION OF MEDICAL SCIENCES

Lecture for 1^st year medical students on 20^th October 2000

OUTLINE

1.0 HISTORY OF MEDICINE, tarikh al tibb

A. PRE-ISLAMIC ROOTS

B. THE ISLAMIC ERA

C. LUMINARIES OF MEDICINE

D. MUSLIM CONTRIBUTIONS TO MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE

E. TRANSFER OF MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE TO EUROPE

2.0 PROPHETIC MEDICINE, tibb nabawi

A. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TIBB NABAWI

B. SOURCES OF TIBB NABAWI

C. CLASSIFICATION OF TIBB NABAWI

D. APPLICATION OF TIBB NABAWI TODAY

E. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE CHALLENGES

3.0 ISLAMIC MEDICINE, tibb islami

A. CONFUSION BETWEEN ‘MUSLIM’ and ‘ISLAMIC’

B. CRITIQUE OF VARIOUS DEFINITIONS OF ISLAMIC MEDICINE

C. CRITIQUE OF VARIOUS MANIFESTATIONS OF ISLAMIC MEDICIN

D. ISLAMIC MDICINE AS EPARADIGMS, METHODOLOGY, and VALUES

E. NEED FOR REFORM IN MEDICINE

4.0 ISLAMIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE: CONCEPT and PRACTICE

A. THE CONCEPT OF ISLAMIZATION:

B. HISTORY OF ISLAMIZATION

C. REFORM OF DISCIPLINES:

D. MISUNDERSTANDING THE REFORM PROCESS

E. PRACTICAL STEPS / TASKS OF THE REFORM PROCESS:

5.0 CRITICAL THINKING and CREATIVITY

A. DECLINE and RENAISSANCE

SCIENTIFIC TARBIYAT IN THE QUR’AN

ISLAMIC INPUT CURRICULUM

RESEARCH and APPLICATION

THE CHALLENGE TO EXCEL

1.0 HISTORY OF MEDICINE, tarikh al tibb

A. PRE-ISLAMIC ROOTS

ANCIENT EGYPT:

The practice of embalming the dead gave Egyptians a lot of knowledge about anatomy. They also developed various medical and surgical modalities.

BABYLON:

The babylonians knew nasal tamponade for bleeding, cataract couching. They used blood-letting as a treatment. They knew circumcision and we learn from the sunnat that the great patriarch Ibrahim (PBUH) was circumcised.

CHINA

The saying ‘seek knowledge even if as far away as China’ is well known all over the Muslim world. Muslims learned a lot from the Chinese. Ancient Chinese medicine was well developed. The Chinese developed acupuncture and castration of males who became eunuchs. Chang Chon-Ching, who lived in the 2^nd century CE,  was the most famous Chinese physician. He had famous medical writings and spread medical knowledge to Japan. In the 3^rd century CE the Chinese surgeon Hua Chu wrote about physiology, anatomy, pathology, anesthetics. After him Huang wrote about acupuncture. Tao Hung Ching (454-536 CE) used acupuncture and had interests in internal medicine, anatomy, children and women diseases, obstetrics, dietetics, and drugs. Chao Yuan Fang (550-630 CE) wrote a medical encyclopedia. Sa’ad Ibn Abi Waqqaas the commander of the conquest of qadisiyyat (13 AH) and the founder of the city of Kufa (18 AH) was sent by Othman in a diplomatic mission to China 620-640 CE and is reported to have lived in the Chinese city of Canton. Thereafter contacts between Muslims and Chinese increased. A Chinese physician came to Al Razi (d. 313 AH/925 CE) and requested to study under him for 1 year. He learned Arabic and translated medical books into Chinese. Muslims were in contact with Chinese physicians who visited Central Asia such as Yuan Chwang 630-645 CE and I Tsung 675-685 CE.

INDIA

Surgical knowledge in India was very advanced. The following operations were carried out by Indian surgeons: tonsillectomy, amputation, tumor excision, hernia repair, repair of harelips, removal of bladder stones, couching cataracts, nose repair, ceserian section. They also developed surgical instruments. They knew the washing and bandaging of wounds. Hyoscamus (Henbane) and cannabis indica were used as anesthetics. In some cases hypnosis was used as anesthesia. The period 6-12^th centuries CE witnessed development of Indian medicine especially in the field of toxicology. Indian medicine reached Baghdad both directly and indirectly, through Persia. Muslims entered Sindh in 15AH/637CE led by the omayyad military leader Muhammad Ibn al Qasim; a long period of contact with Indian medicine, trade and cultural exchange ensued. In the Abassid era the ruling Barmaki family were interested in indian culture especially its medicine. Yahya bin Khalid al Barmaki, vizier of Harun al Rashiid, sent missions to India to learn its medical knowledge. He also invited Indian physicians to Baghdad. Some Indian medical texts were translted into Arabic in Baghdad. The physician Abi al Hasan Ali Bin Sahal al Tabari in his book ‘Firdaus al Hikmat’ completed in 236 AH / 850 CE wrote about Indian medicine covering topics such as: importance of spiritual cures, treatment of metal disorders, importance of specialization, women diseases, obstetrics, internal medicine, dietary treatment, looking at the patient as one entity, diagnosis, preventive medicine, anatomy, surgery, surgical instruments, and medical training. The Indian physician Kankah treated Harun al Rashiid and translated a book on poisons. The Indian physician Salih bin Baghlat was famous at the Abassid court. Urnda, Siddhayogar, and Ibn Dahn al Hindi were Indian physicians who served the abassids and all worked at the Baghdad Hospital built in 187 AH/ 803 CE in the era of Harun al Rashid. Zantah was an Indian physician who wrote about poisons and their treatment. Ibn al Nadiim in his book ‘Al Fihrist’ mentioned Indian medical books that were translated into Arabic. Abubakr al Razi in his book ‘al Hawi’ depended a lot on Indian medical knowledge. Abi al Rayhan Muhammad bin Ahmad al Bairuni wrote about Indian medicine. He traveled in India and was very familiar with its people and culture.

SYRIAC

Syriacs translated Greek medical books into their language and subsequently into Arabic. Among the Syriac translators were: Sarjus al Ras’ani (d. 536 CE), Job of Edessa or Ayyub al Rahawi (d. 832 CE), and the famous Hunain Ibn Ishaq. In the Abassid era many translations were from Greek to Syriac and then to Arabic and not directly Greek to Arabic. The Syriacs not only translated but also wrote books making their own contributions for example Sarjus al Ras’ani wrote ‘ al isatisqau’ and Ayub al Rahawi wrote ‘Fahas al bawl’.

PERSIA

Persian interest in Greek medicine was demonstrated when the King of Persia invited the famous Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 BC) to help deal with diseases and epidemics in Persia. Hippocrates did not agree. When Alexander of Macedonia defeated Persia, he spread hellenic civilization including its medicine. Greek knowledge was translated first into Persian then into Arabic. Hereafter many translations of medical works were made from Persian to Arabic especially at the time of the abassids. Persian influence was very strong at the abassid court in many areas including medicine.

ARABIAN PENINSULA

Medical knowledge in the Arabian peninsula before Islam was the folk medicine found in all human communities. We know a lot about the nature of this medicine from the many authentic hadiths on Tibb al nabawi. The prophet’s medicine was in most cases the medicine practised in Hejaz at that time. Pre-Islamic Arabs used cupping, hijamat; cautery, kayy, and branding with fire, wasm. They used a wide variety of herbal medicine. Among medical practitioners in the pre-Islamic era were: Ibn Huzeem, Nadr Ibn Harith, and Ramtha al Tamiimi. The harsh environment, isolation in the desert, the nomadic Bedouin life, and general illiteracy explain the low level of medical knowledge among Arabs before Islam. They sometimes confused medical practice with sorcery and magic.

GRECO-ROMAN

Greel medical knowledge was picked up by the Romans and was spread in West Asia by the Byzantines. The famous Roman physician Galen closely followed Hippocrates. He in turn had a major impact on Byzantine medicine. Muslims learned a lot from Galen but also had access to other Greek sources. Complete reliance on Galen eas not possible because Galen was selective in his copying from Hippocrates and other Greek physicians. Muslims played a big role in preserving early Greek medical knowledge, improving and enhancing it, and eventually passing it on to Europe during the renaissance. The Greek physician and father of European medicine, Hippocrates son of Heraclides (460-377 or 370 BC), introduced rational/scientific medicine. He introduced the theory of the 4 humors and the 4 elements of the body. The Hippocratic corpus consists of his writings and those of his students. Romans learned from the Greeks and developed advanced military hospitals called valetudinaria that were used to treat wounded soldiers on the battle-field. Three Roman physicians became famous: Celsus, Rofus, and Galen. Celsus described the cardinal signs of inflammation: rubor, tumor, calore, and dolore; provided  details of surgical procedures; and described ligation of blod vessels. He encouraged dissection. Rofus wrote 42 titles and made contributions to anatomy, surgery, and urinary tract disease. Claudius Galen (130-201 BC), a skilled Roman military surgeon, had great impact on Arab medicine. His writings were compiled by the Byzantines and were eventually translated into Arabic. The Greek-speaking multi-natonal Byzantine empire, with its capital at Constantinople in West Asia, lasted over 1000 years after the fall of Rome and acted as a bridge to transfer Greek knowledge to West Asia and North Africa. The Byzantines compiled Greek knowledge from Hellenic and Roman books. The University of Alexandria was the center of this activity. It continued functioning after the Muslim conquest of 642 CE and lasted until 719 CE. Johns Philoponus, the grammarian, was an Egyptian scholar in Alexandria who met Amre bin al Aas. He wrote commentaries on the books of Aristotle and Galen. Palladius and Asclepius wrote commentaries on Hippocrat’es writings in the 6^th century CE. Paulinus, an expert in women diseases and obstetrics,  was another Byzantine physician in Alexandria.

B. THE ISLAMIC ERA

MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE IN THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD (0 – 132 H)

Overview: The period under review covers the era of the Prophet (-13 – 10 H), the era of the 4 rightly-guided khulafa, khulafa al rashdiin (10-40 AH), the omayyad era (41-132 AH), and entry into Andalusia (starting 94 H). The prophet;s teachings gave a big impetus to medicine. He taught that there were two branches of knowledge: ‘ilm al abdaan & ilm al adyaan. He taught that the body had rights and had to be cared for. He also taught that the intestine was the abode of disease and prevention was the head of all medicine. He taught a lot about personal and environmental hygiene. He practiced medicine and urged his companions to seek cures for their diseases. The start of rapid medical advance was in the omayyad period. Translations of medical texts into Arabic started under the omayyads. Prince Khalid Ibn Yazid rewarded translators lavishly. A hospital was built for the lepers in Damascus.

Nurses: The followinh nurses became famous for their nursing work both in war and peace during the time of the prophet: Rufaidat bint Ka’ab al Aslamiyyat; Amiinat Bint Qays al Ghifariyyat; Umm ‘Atiyyah al Anasariyyat; Nusaibat Bint Ka’ab al Maziniyyat & her family; Zainab from the tribe of Bani Awd an expert in diseases and surgery of the eye. Rufaidah bint Sa'ad, is generally recognized as the first Muslim nurse. Rufaidat's full name was Rufaidat bint Sa'ad of the bani Aslam tribe of the Khazraj tribal confederation in Madinah. She was born in Yathrib before the migration of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). She was among the first people in Madina to accept Islam and was one of the Ansar women who welcomed the Prophet on arrival in Madina. Rufaidah's father was a physician. She learned medical care by working as his assistant. Her history illustrates all the attributes expected of a good nurse. She was kind and empathetic. She was a capable leader and organiser able to mobilise and get others to produce good work. She had clinical skills that she shared with the other nurses whom she trained and worked with. She did not confine her nursing to the clinical situation. She went out to the community and tried to solve the social problems that lead to disease. She was a public health nurse and a social worker. When the Islamic state was well established in Madina, Rufaidah devoted herself to nursing the Muslim sick. In peace time she set up a tent outside the Prophet's mosque in Madina where she nursed the sick. During war she led groups of volunteer nurses who went to the battle-field and treated the casualties. She participated in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khaibar, and others. Rufaidah's field hospital tent became very famous during the battles. At the battle of the trench, ghazwat al khandaq, Rufaidah set up her hospital tent at the battle-field. The prophet Muhammad instructed that Sa'ad bin Ma'adh who had been injured in battle be moved to the tent. Rufaidah nursed him and carefully removed the arrow from his forearm and achieved hemostasis. The prophet visited Sa'ad in the hospital tent several times. Rufaidah had trained a group of women companions as nurses. When the Prophet's army was getting ready to go to the battle of Khaibar, Rufaidah and the group of volunteer nurses went to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). They asked him for permission "Oh messenger of Allah, we want to go out with you to the battle and treat the injured and help Muslims as much as we can". The Prophet gave them permission to go. The nurse volunteers did such a good job that the Prophet assigned a share of the booty to Rufaidah. Her share was equivalent to that of soldiers who had actually fought. Rufaidah's contribution was not confined only to nursing the injured. She was involved in social work in the community. She came to the assistance of every Muslim in need: the poor, the orphans, or the handicapped. She looked after the orphans, nursed them, and taught them. Rufaidah had a kind and empathetic personality that sothed the patients in addition to the medical care that she provided. History has recorded names of women who worked with Rufaidah: Umm Ammara, Aminah, Umm Ayman, Safiyat, Umm Sulaim, and Hind. Umm Ammara is also known as Nusaibat bint Ka'ab bin Amru bin 'Awf bin Mabdhool bin 'Amru bin Ghanam bin Mazin bin al Najjar al Ansariyat. She was the mother Abdullah and Habiib, the sons of Bani Zayd bin 'Asim. Nusaibat was assisted by her husband and her children in her nursing work. She participated in the convenants of 'Aqabat and Ridhwan. She was at the battle of Uhud with her husband and her son. She was also at the battle against Musailamah in Yamamah. She was injured 12 times in this battle, her hand was cut off, and she eventually died as a result of her wounds. She had gone to the battle of Uhud to nurse the fighters and provide them with water and when the battle turned against Muslims she took a sword and fought defending the Prophet. Amiinat bint Qays was reported to have helped in preapring Safiyat for her wedding to the Prophet (PBUH). Umm 'Atiyyah al Ansariyat al Khadfidhat treated women in Madina.

Physicians: Among the physians of this era were: al Harith Bin Kaldat,  Rufa’at bin Yathri,  Ibn Athaal,  Thiyadhuuq,  Abd al Malik Bin Sa’ied bin Hayyaan bin Abjar al Kinani , Abu al Hakam al Dimashqi,  Wahb bin Minyat (d. 112H /732 CE), and Ibn Juraih al Raahib (d. 130H). Abu Omar Bin Salal al Harith Bin Kaldat of the tribe of Thaqaf from Taif was praised by the prophet as the best Arab physician of his day. The prophet ordered Sa’ad bin Abi Waqqaas to consult al Harith. Al Harith studied medicine in Khuristan in Persia and became famous as a physician in Persia. He then returned to Taif and entered Islam and lived until the Omayyad era. He used to advise people to take preventive measures against disease. Rufa’at bin Yathri Abu Ramthat al Tamiimi lived at the time of the prophet and met him. Ibn Athaal, a Christian physician at the court of Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan and an expert in medicines and poisons, was suspected in the death of many prominent people. Thiyadhuuq, said to have been a physician to omayyad governor Hajjaaj bin Yusuf, wrote a book with special interest on the relation between the patient and the physician and also wrote on dietary advice. Abd al Malik Bin Sa’ied bin Hayyaan bin Abjar al Kinani was a physician of the Khalifah Omar Ibn Abd al Aziiz (99-101 H) and had a famous saying: ‘leave the medicine alone as long as you can withstand the disease, d’i al dawaa ma ihtamala badanuka al ddaau’. Abu al Hakam al Dimashqi was a Christian physician with specialization in therapeutics and was physician to the second Omayyad khalifah, Yazid Ibn Abi Sufyan. ‘Aailat Ibn Hakam al Dimashqi was a Christian physician for the Omayyad rulers. His son Abu al Hasan ‘Isa bin Hakam bin Abi al Hakam was also a physician and authored a medical book.  Wahb bin Minyat (d. 112H /732 CE)  knew Greek physiology and believed that a person has 360 organs.

MEDICINE IN THE GOLDEN ERA OF THE ABASSID PERIOD (132 H – 656 H / 749 – 1258 CE )

Achievements: This era was a time of translation and advancement in medical knowledge and technology. This was made possible by the general conditions of peace that pax Islamica had established allowing movement of people and ideas across the expanse of a  large empire. The political leaders encouraged as well as patronized learning and science. They bought books and imported scientific brains. Al Ma amun established Bayt al Hikmat which undertook translations of Greek knowledge. Hunain Ibn Ishaaq (808-873 CE), one of the most famous translators,  translated from Syriac to Arabic assisted by his son Ishaaq and his daughter’s son, Hubaysh al A’am, and Isa bin Yahya. They were joined in the translation project by Istafan bin Basil, Qusta bin Luuqa, and Thabit bin Qurrat al Harraani. The translators gave priority to books of Galen over those of Hippocrates; however the ideas of the latter were included in he writings of the former. They translated other books in pharmacy and medicine by Greek and Byzantine authors. Unfortunately they also translated books on magic and sorcery which created confusion in Muslim medicine later. The age of translation was soon followed by the age of innovation; Muslims were no longer passive consumers of knowledge; they started adding to it and enriching it. The process of translation strengthened Arabic as a language of science. The translators had to arabise many technical terms, ta’ariib al mustalahaat. Greek tenets and ideas were islamized for example translators would use alternative words in the place of pig and alcohol. During the early abassid era, many measures of public health significance were undertaken. The abassid Minister Ali Ibn Isa asked the court physician Sinaan Ibn Thabit to organize regular visiting of prisons by medical officers. The first hospital was built by Harun al Rashiid in Baghdad. Khalifah al Mansur instructed his physician Isa bin Yusuf to examine all physicians to determine those who were competent; those who were successful were allowed to continue their work and the unqualified were expelled. Sinaan examined physicians in 319H.

Two families of physicians: Bakhtishu’u and Masawayh: The famly of Bakhtishu’u made many contributions to the early growrth of medicine. Jurjis bin Bakhtishu’u al Jandishapuri was a Syrian physician brought to treat the khalifah, al Mansur, in Baghdad. He cured the khalifah and returned to his hometown after 4 years. His place at the capital was taken by his son Bakhtyuush who later became a physician for Harun al Rashiid. Bakhtyuush was followed by his son Jibril bin Bakhtyuush who authored medical books. They were followed by others from the same family serving the rulers. The family served at the court for several generations and attained positions of influence, power, and wealth. Al Hakiim Yahya bin Bakhtyuush al Jandishapuri translated from Greek and Syriac to Arabic and died in Baghdad in 300H. Abu Sa’id Obaydullah bin Jibril from the family of bakhtyuush wrote several books: nawadir al masail, manaqib al attibba (completed in 423H), al taharat wa wujuubiha, tadhkirat al haadhir wa zaad al musaafir, and rawdhat tibbiyyat. The family of Masawayh made many contributions to medicine. Masawayh was a pharmacist who had two sons: Daud and Yahya. Daud became famous as a physician eloquent in Persian, Syriac, and a little Arabic. Abi Zakariyah Yohanna Ibn Masawayh (777-857 CE), a physician to several abassid rulers (Al Ma amun, al Mu’tasim, al Waathiq, al Mutawakkil) and teacher of Hunain Ibn Ishaaq, was commissioned together with his sons by Harun al al Rashid to translate ancient Greekn medical books. The Khalifah al Ma amuun made him head of the Bayt al Hikmat.  He was supervisor of the hospital in Baghdad and was the first person to establish a faculty of medicine. He wrote many books on fevers, nutrition, headache, and sterility in women that were translated in Europe. One of his famous publications was a book ‘kitaab al kamala wa tamaam’ that covered several diseases. He was so interested in dissection that he had a special room for that purpose and had apes brought to him from Nubia in Africa.

Other physicians: Abu al Hasan Ali Bin Sahl Rabn Al Tabari, a physician to two abassid khulafa, was born a Christian in Persia in 810 CE. He embraced Islam at the hands of al Mu ‘tasim and died in Baghdad after 227 H / 831 CE. He first lived in Tabarstan and moved to Baghdad in about 297H. He authored Firdaus al Hikmat, dedicated to al Mutawakkil and published in 850 CE, an encyclopedic work on medicine, philosophy, zoology, and astronomy greatly influenced by the writings of Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen. The end of the book was a description of Indian medicine. Abu Yusuf Ya’aqub bin Ishaq bin Salih bin Ismail bin Muhammad bin al Ash’ath al Kindi the philosopher of the Arabs wrote a book on mental health titled ‘al Hiilat li Dafu’I al Ahzaan’ as well as other medical books. Qusta bin Luuqa al Ba’alabakki, born a Christian in 830 CE and died in 912 CE, was a contemporary of al Kindi. He translated many books into Arabic and wrote books on physiology and psychology. Mankah was an Indian who translated books into Arabic from Sanskrit including a treatise on poisons by the Indian physician Sanqah. Thabit bin Qurrat al Harraani translated many medical books. Hunain Ibn Ishaq al Ibaadi aka Johanitius (194-260 H / 810-873 CE) was a Christian who knew Syriac, Greek, and Arabic. He studied in Basra, Baghdad, Syria, and Byzantine. He translated Greek medical books including writings of Hippocrates and Galen. His work was continued after his death by his nephew Hubaish. He in addition wrote some books of his own the most famous being kitaab al aghdhiyat, al masail fi al tibb li al muta’alimiin, kitaab al madkhal fi al tibb, kitaab al maqqqlaat al asharat fi al saidalat. Ali Ibn Abbaas al Majuusi, a native of Ahwaaz from a Zoroastian family who died in 982 or 995 CE, authored a book on treatment of disease with single remedies, adwiyat mufradat, and another book on medicine called Kaamil al Sina’at al Tibiyyat that became famous after that as al Maliki and was translated into Latin and used as a reference in Europe. He was the first to explain that the fetus is expelled by the contractions of the uterus. Ibn Abi Usaybi’ah was born in Syria and practiced medicine in Cairo. His major contribution was writing bibliographies of all physicians before him. Ibn al Quffi, whose full name was Amin al Dawlah Ibn al Faraj Muwafiq al Ddiin Ya'qub Ibn Ishaq Ibn al Quffi al Malaki al Karki, was born in 630 AH/1233 CE and died in 685 AH/1286 CE. He wrote a surgical manual ' al 'umdat fi sina'at al jarahat'. Dhia Al Addin Abdullah Ahmad Bin Al Baitar was born towards the end of the 12^th century and died in 1248 CE. He traveled widely. His most famous book was al Jamiu li Mufradaat al Adwiyat wa al Aghdhiyat. Abu Ibrahim Zain al Ddiin Ismail bin al Hassan bin Muhammad al Husayni al Alawi al Jarjaani (d. 531 H / 1137 CE) authored three books in the Persian language: al Tadhkirat al Ashrafiyat fi al Sina’at al Tibiyyat, al Ajwibat al Tibiyyat wa al Mabahith al ‘Alaniyat, and Zubdat al Tabiib. Muwafaq Al Adiin Abd Al Latiif Bin Yusuf Al Baghdadi (b. 1162 CE d. 1231 travelled to Cairo and Damascus. He started teaching medicine in Damascus in 1207 CE. Jurjus Bin Jibrail; Ibn Radhwan Al Masri; Alau al Ddiin Ali bin Abi al Hazm; Ali Bin Abbas Al Tusi.

MEDICINE IN THE LATER ABASSID ERA (659 – 923 H / 1261-1517 CE)

Following the Tatar invasion and destruction of the capital of the khilafat in Baghdad, the Muslim world went into a period of decline. Medicine and medical knowledge also declined.

ANDALUSIA:

Medical knowledge spread in Europe from Andalusia. The famous Andalusian physicians were: Urayb bin Salad al Katib, Abu Zakariyyah Yahya Ibn Ishaq, Abul al Qasim al Zahrawi, Ibn Abayya, Ibn Tufail, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Khatimah, Ibn al khatib. Abu Omran Musa bin Maimoon al Qurtubi al Andalusi aka Maimoinides (529-605 H / 1135-1209 CE) was a Jew born in Qurtuba in Andalusia in the year 1135 CE  who migrated to and settled in Egypt. He and his son, al Afdhal, after him became physicians to to Salah al Ddiin al Ayubi. He wrote the following books: dalaalat al hairiin, maqalat fi al sumuum, and al taharuz min al adwiyat al qattaalat. His most fampous book was al fusuul fi al tibb, aphorisms, that was extracted from writings of Galen.

THE MAGHREB:

Medical knowledge in the maghreb was an extension of the Andalusian medical knowledge.

THE OTTOMMAN STATE:

C. LUMINARIES OF MEDICINE,  a’alaam al tibb al muslimiin

AL RAZI

Abubakr Muhammad Bin Zakariyyah Al Razi (251-313H/865-923 CE), a Persian and a student of al Tabari, wrote more than 100 books the most famous being al Hawi al Kabir (in full ‘al Haawi fi Sina’at al Tibb) in 30 volumes) which was translated into Latin and reprinted many times in Europe. His other books were: al Mansuuri and Tibb al Ruuh. He was interested in chemistry and is said to have prepared absolute alcohol from fermented sugar. He invented a scale for measuring specific gravity. He described smallpox. He investigated women’s diseases, obstetrics, hereditary diseases, eye diseases, small pox, and measles. He was director of hospitals in Baghdad and his native land in Rayy.

IBN SINA

Al Shaikh al Rais Abu Ali Al Hussain Bin Abdillah Bin al Hassan Ibn Sina (370-428 H / 980 – 1037 CE) wrote many books the most famous being al Qanuun fi al Tibb, a 14-volume encyclopedia on disease classification and causes, therapeutics, simple and compound medicines, hygiene, and functions of the body. The book was translated into Latin and had a major impact on western medicine being taught until the 18^th century CE. Ibn Sina recognized that TB was contagious and accurately described the symptoms of diabetes mellitus. Besides medicine, Ibn Sina made contributions to science, mathematics, chemistry, and philosophy.

AL ZAHRAWI

Abu Al Qasim Khalaf Bin Abbas Al Zahrawi (b. 912 CE, d. 404 AH/1013 CE) practiced medicine in Qurtuba in the reign of the omayyad Khalifat Abdurahman the Third who ruled 912-961 CE. His fields of interest were: surgery, pharmacology, and anatomy. He designed over 200 surgical instruments.His book Kitaab al tasriif liman 'Zajaza 'an Ta'liif  became a standard textbook of surgery. His other writings were Risala fi Tafdhil al ‘Asal ‘ala al Sukkar, Tadhkirat fi al Dawaa al Mushil [first medical encyclopedia in Andalusia], Maqala fi ‘ilal al Kula, Risalat fi al Baras, Kitaab al Iqtisad fi Islahi al Anfus wa al Jasad, Kitab al Aghdhiyat wa al Adwiyat, Kitaab al Jami fi al Ashribat wa ‘ilm al Ajinnat, Kitaab al Zina, Kitaab al Qaanuun al Muqtadab, Kitaab Mukhtasar Hilt al Bur li Jalinus.

IBN ZUHR

The family of Ibn Zuhr produced 6 consecutive generations of famous physicians the most famous being Abu Marwan Abdu Al Malik Ibn Zuhr (b. 1091 or 1094 CE d.487H / 1162 CE), a contemporary of Ibn Rushd, who lived in Andalusia and Morocco. His main book was al Taysir whose full title is Kitaab al Taysiir fi al Mudaawat wa al Tadbiir translated into Latin and used in Europe.

IBN RUSHD

Abu Al Waliid Muhammad Ibn Rushd (B. 1126 CE d.  595 H / 1198 CE) lived in Qurtuba in Andalusia. He was interested in philosophy and also practiced medicine medicine. He wrote a medical work called al Kulliyat translated in Europe. He made the observation that smallpox infected only once.

IBN AL NAFIIS

Alau Al Ddiin Abu Al Hasan Bin Abu Al Hazim Al Qurashi Al Dimashqi Ibn Al Nafees (d. 686H / 1288 CE) was born in Syria but practiced in Cairo. He described blood circulation before William Harvey but this was not noticed in Europe. He authored sharh tashriih al qanuun in which he explained pulmonary circulation.

D. MUSLIM CONTRIBUTIONS TO MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE

BASIC SCIENCES

Anatomy: Muslims largely dependec on the writings of Galen. They however made their own observations and corrected many mistakes made by Galen.

Physiology: Muslim physiological knowledge was influenced a lot by the Greek theories of the 4 elements, al asqaat: hot, cold, wet, and dry; the 4 humors, al alkhlaat: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile; the 9 temparaments, al mizaaj: 1 balanced and 8 out of balance; the pneumata, al arwaah: ruh tabi’I, ruh hayawaani, and ruh nafsaani. They also described the faculties, al quwaa: natural faculties, quwa tabi’iyat, animal faculties, quwa haiwaniyyat, psychic faculties, quwa nafsaniyyat; and procreative faculties, quwa al insaal. These Greek ideas had one very important and true concept, the idea of balance which is the forerunner of the modern physiological concept of homeostasis. Most of the details were however found by later research to be untrue and were discarded. The heart and circulation were described by Muslims as a mechanical pump. Ideas of food digestion were also known.

MEDICAL DISCIPLINES

Infectious diseases: Al Razi was aware of air-borne infection when he made an experiment to determine the site of a new hospital in Baghdad by putting meat in the air and waiting to see the site where it putrfied soonest. Al Razi in his book, Kitaab al judri wa al hisbat described the symptoms of smallpox and measles. The concept of contagion was known as early as the time of the prophet. Al Majuusi described contagious diseases like leprosy, elephantiasis, phrenitis, and trachoma. Ibn al Khatib and Ibn Khatimat described the symptoms of plague. Ibn Khatima had mentioned minute bodies causing disease in the 14^th century CE.

Public health: the following wrote about public health: Qusta bin Luuqa, Ishaaq bin Omran, Ibn al Jazzaar, Ibn Sina, Fakhr al Ddiin al Razi, and Ibn al Quffi.

Blood circulation:  Ibn Nafees al Nafees described pulmonary circulation centuries before its ‘discovery’ by William Harvey.

Psychiatry: depression melancholia was related to organic factors. It was also realized that it could be caused solely by psychological factors. The symptoms of depression were described very well.

Metabolic/endocrine diseases: The symptoms of diabetes mellitus were described well. Urine examination was a very advanced art.

Allergy: Al Razi described rhinitis due to plant exposure centuries before similar descriptions by Europeans.

Dietetics: Muslims knew that diet is a method of treatment. The following wrote on diets: Hunain Ibn Ishaaq, Muhammad bin Zakariyyah al Razi, and Ibn Zuhr.

PHARMACEUTICALS

Muslims knew both simple and compound drugs. Among those who wrote about drugs were: Abu daud Sulaiman bin Hasan al Andalusi known as Ibn Juljul in the 4^th century H / 10^th century CE; Ibn al Jazzaar, Ibn al Raihan al Biruni, Abi Obaid al Bakri, Ibn Baja al Idrisi, and Abd al Latif al Baghdadi.

SURGICAL DISCIPLINES

Anatomy:  The main contributors were: Ibn Masawayh, Ibn Abi al Ash’th, al Majusi, Ibn Habal, Ali Ibn Abbas, Ibn Sina, Ibn al Quffi, Ibn al Nafiis, Ibn Ruhd, Abdul Lateef Baghdadi, Zakariyyah Ibn Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al Cazweeny d. 683 AH). Al Razi encouraged dissection and study of physiology. Al Zahrawi insisted on knowledge of anatomy before any surgery. 

Ophthalmology: (Ibn Hytham d. 1040 AD, Hunain Ibn Ishaq, Al Razi, Ibn Sina, Al Zahrawi, Ali Ibn Isa, Ibn al Rushd, Abu al Qasim Ammar). Ibm Hytham (965-1040 CE) in his book 'Kitaab al Manadhir' disproved the extromission theories of Euclid and Ptolmey and instead advocated an intromission view. He described the optic pathways and the point-to-point projection of the visual world into the  brain. He described how eye movements helpoed in visual perception. He also realised that several processes were involved in conscious visual experience. Jurjani (5^th century AH) wrote about ophthalmology in his book 'Nur al ‘Uyuun'. Al Zahrawi described many extra-ocular operations. Al Zahrawi described the posterior displacement of the lens in cataracts. He also discovered many instruments such as: hooks, eye speculum, conjuctival scissors for removal of panus, pereforator and depressing needles for cataract surgery. Al Razi recommended tearing the capsule of the lens if it can not be displaced and Ibn Sina described various needles that can be used for this. Ali Ibn Isa was another ophthalmologist who wrote the book 'Tadhkirat al Kahaliin'. Both Al Razi and Ibn Sina described a procedure for operative decompression of glaucoma.

Anesthesiology: Al Zahrawi performed many of his operations under anesthesia: opium or mandragora.

Obstetrics: Al Baladi (circa 380 H) wrote a complete discourse on midwifery called ' Kitaab Tadbir al Habala'. Al Zahrawi described normal and abnormal presentations and described instruments for craniotomy to deliver a dead fetus in case of obstruction. He also developed a vaginal speculum.

General surgery: The main contributors were: Ibn Zuhr, al Shirazi, Ibn Dhahabi, and al Zahrawi. The book al Tasrif By Al Zahrawi took 30 years to compile in 30 volumes. The last volume deals with surgery and is one fifth of the whole book. The volume on surgery is divided into three sections: (a) cauterisation with 56 chapters (b) incisions, perforations, wounds & wound healing 93 chapters (c) bones setting and joints 36 chapters. The book contains anatomical details. It covered all branches of surgery. The book was used as a standard text in Europe and was translated into Latin in the 12^th century CE. Al Zahrawi performed thyreidoctomy in 952 CE. Al Razi was the first to use gut sutures for intestinal repair. Al Zahrawi is also reported to have used catgut and cotton sutures. Al Zahrawi recognised pain as a symptom and not a disease. Among operations performed by Al Zahrawi and described in his writings were: tracheostomy as an elective procedure and bandaging techniques. Al Zahrawi has 11 inventions credited to his name such as use of the syringe for bladder irrigation, the vaginal speculum, and plaster for bone setting. Al Jurjani (d. 1136 CE) described the relation between goitre and exophthalmos

Traumatology & orthopedics: Al Zahrawi and al Quff described treatment of bone and joint trauma. Zahrawi wrote about osteomyelitis, amputations, and ostotomies for un-united fractures. He cautioned against above-knee and above-elbow amputations.

Wound treatment: The main contributors were: Ibn Sina, Al Zahrawi, Ibn Rushd, and Al Razi. Al Zahrawi taught the following methods of arresting hemorrhage: digital pressure, tourniquet, sponges, cauterisation, hypothermia, ligation of bleeding vessels by sutures of thread. He also advised against tight bandaging. Al Zahrawi emphasied the importance of cleanliness in would treatment. Ibn Sina mentioned dry dressing. Al Zahrawi wrote about the drainage of abscesses describing in detail the site and shape of the incision, packing of the wound, excision of the skin edges, use of slow decompression of large cavities, dependent and counter drainage.  

Urology: Al Zahrawi described bladder irrigation. He also developed original methods of lithotromy for impacted stones. He introduced a fine drill into the urethra and was rotated gently to break up the stone into small pieces that could be washed away by the urine.  He also wrote about using a bladder sound to locate bladder calculi, control of post-operative hemorrhage, and removal of clots from the bladder.

Gastro-enterology: Al Zahrawi used stomach tubes. He described paracentesis for ascites and intra-peritoneal abscesses. He mentioned use of trocar and cannula to drain liver abscesses. He also described the use a heated cautery to open liver abscesses. Ibn Zuhr (1113-1162 CE) was the first to describe in detail the distinction between gastric ulcer and gastric malignancy. Ibn Sina wrote about colitis and its management by diet, drugs, and enema. Abu Imran Musa bin Maymun (1135-1204 CE) wrote about hemorrhoids and the role of diet and surgery in their treatment. Mohammad bin Mahmood Al-Qusum (circa 1525 CE) in his book ' Zad al Masir fi 'Ilaj Bawasir' wrote about treatment of piles. Ibn al Quff wrote about complications of hemorrhoidectomy and post-operative anal stricture. Al Zahrawi originated cauterisation treatment of fistula-in-ano and was aware of the complications of this treatment.

Plastic surgery: Al Zahrawi described the cauterisation treatment of harelip. He wrote that the edges must be freshened first before cautery.

Ear , Nose, and Throat: Al Zahrawi discovered the guillotine method of tonsillectomy as well as the complications of the operation. He described the tunors of the tonsil. Among discoveries attributed to al Zahrawi are: use of special osteotomies for nasal operations and polypectomy, use of a marine sponge with an attached string for removal of foreign bodied from the throat, removal of foreign bodies from ears, treatment of nasopharyngeal tumors by repeated excision and cauterisation.

Dentistry: Ibn al Quff described making artificial teeth from bone. A Zahrawi described several dental operartions: wiring of loose teeth, extraction of roots of broken teeth and broken pieces of the mandible by use of special forceps.

Thermal and chemical cauterization for syphilitic lesions by Ibn Sina

Tumors: The main contributor was Abdul Malik Ibn Zuhr (d. 484 H). Al Zahrawi and Ibn Sina recommended wide excision including healthy tissue in removal of tumors. Use of cautery and drugs in treatment of tunors was also described. 

Neuro-surgery: Both al Zahrawi and Ibn Quff described in detail the various intra-cranial and extra-cranial hemorrahges due to arrow wounds and their respective treatments. Al Zahrawi described symptoms and signs of skull fracture. He also described the depressed fracture in children and recommended treatment by removal of a bone. In cranial operations, the drill may accidentally perforate the delicate intra-cranial structure; Al Zahrawi developed an instrument to prevent this accidental penetration. Al Zahrawi's craniotomy operations were remarkably like modern ones; using burr holes with a linking cut between them allowing to raise part of the cranial vault. Al Zahrawi described paralysis due to injury of the spinal cord. Ali Abbas described several types of fractures: simple, comminuted, displaced, and hairline. Ibn Sina classified fractures of the skull into two types: closed fractures and open fractures. He described treatment of skull wounds by relieving hematoma or removing pieces iof bone that culd hurt the brain. Al Baghdadi described the depression fracture found in children. He also described meningoceles that remained after skull surgery and appeared during coughing.  Samarkandi described treatment of brain edema following skull trauma and its relief using dehydration, venesection, and enema.

HOSPITALS & MEDICAL COLLEGES:

Hospitals were built in Baghdad, Cairo, Andalusia, and Dimashq. Bimaristan al Adudi al Kabir was opened in Baghdad in 982 CE. Bimaristan al Nuri al Kabir was established in Cairo in 160 CE. The Salahi and Mansuri hospitals in Cairo.

MAJOR WRITINGS by MUSLIM PHYSICIANS

Al Qanun Fi Al Tibb By Abu Abdullah Ali Al Hussein Bin Abdullah Ibn Siina

Al Hawi: By Muhammad Ibn Zaariyyah Al Razi

Kitaab Al Manadhir By Ibn Haytham

Al Tasrif By Al Zahrawi. The book al Tasrif that took 30 years to compile is in 30 volumes. The last volume deals with surgery and is one fifth of the whole book. The volume on surgery is divided into three sections: (a) cauterisation with 56 chapters (b)  incisions, perforations, wounds & wound healing 93 chapters (c) bones setting and joints 36 chapters. The book contains anatomical details. It covered all branches of surgery. The book was used as a standard text in Europe and was translated into Latin in the 12^th century CE.

Al Kafi By Abu Nasr Ibn Al Ayn Zarbi

Al Umdat Fi Sinat Al Jarahat  By Abu Al Farag Ibn Al Kufi (1233-1286 CE). The book consists of 20 maqalas of which maqala 17 is devoted to traumatology while maqala 19 discusses surgical problems and their treatment from head to foot.

Al Jirahat Al Kaniya By Sharaf Al Dddiin Ali

Kamil Al Sinaet Al Tibiyyat By Ali Ibn Abbas

Kitaab Al Kulliyaat By Ibn Rushd

Kitaab Zad Al Musafir Wa Quut Al Hadhir By Abu Yafar Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Abi Hadir Al Jazzan

The Ten Articles On The Eye  By Hasan Ibn Ishaq

A Manual For The Oculist By Ali Ibn Isa

Al Taysir Li Man Ajaza ‘An Taliif By Abu Al Qasim Al Zahrawi

Kitab Al Shamil By Ibn Nafiis

Kitaab al Dhakhiirat by Ismail al jarjani in Persian

E. TRANSFER OF MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE TO EUROPE

While Muslim medicine was flourishing in West Asia, Europe was in the ignorance and decline of its middle ages. There were three routes of knowledge transfer from the Muslim world to Europe: through Italy, through Andalusia, and by the crusaders. Constatine Africanus (d. 1087 CE) translated the most important medical books from Arabic into Latin. This gave new life to the Salerno (Italy) school of medicine. After him more books were translated. Many medical texts that had been lost in Europe were rediscovered thanks to the translations made by Muslims. Books by Hunain Ibn Ishaaq, al Razi, Al Zahrawi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Zuhr were translated into Latin and were used in Europe as texts for many years. Europeans came to study at Muslim institutions in Andalusia and took back the knowledge to Europe. Crusaders in the Near East found themselves in a more advanced Muslim civilization and took back many ideas with them to Europe.

2.0PROPHETIC MEDICINE

A. BASIC CAHARACTERISTICS OF PROPHETIC MEDICINE

DEFINITION

Tibb Nabawi refers to words and actions of the Prophet with a bearing on disease, treatment of disease, and care of patients.  Thus also included are words of the prophet on medical matters, medical treatment practiced by others on the prophet, medical treatments practised by the prophet on himself and others, medical treatments observed by the prophet with no objections, medical procedures that the prophet heard or knew about and did not prohibit, or medical practices that were so common that the prophet could not have failed to know about them.  The prophet's medical teachings were specific for place, population, and time. They however also included general guidance on physical and mental health that are applicable to all places, all times, and all circumstances. Tibb nabawi is not one monolithic or systematic medical system as some people would want us to believe. It is varied and circumstantial. It covers preventive medicine, curative medicine, mental well-being, spiritual cures or ruqyah, medical and surgical treatments. It integrates mind & body, matter and spirit.

SEARCH FOR CURES

The Prophet enunciated a basic principle in medicine that for every disease there is cure (ma anzala allahu daa; illa anzala lahu shifa'a- Kitaab al Tibb, al Bukhari).  This is an impetus for us to look for remedies. Thus the prophetic medical tradition does not stop at only the medical teachings of the prophet but goes beyond to encourage humans to search and experiment with new treatment modalities. This implies among other things that prophetic medicine is not static. There is room for growth and even breaking new ground. Al Habba al Saudaa was recommended by the the Prophet as a general treatment and has been studied extensively (Najjar 1992).  Dr. el Kadhi has conducted scientific studies (on its immune effects) that have been published in leading scientific journals in the USA. Other implications of this hadith is that seeking treatment does not contradict qadar (pre-destination). Thus both the disease and its treatment are part of qadar.

B. SOURCES OF TIBB NABAWI

PRE-ISLAMIC ARAB MEDICINE

Tibb nabawi has several sources: revelation (wahy), empirical experience of the prophet, folk medicine of that time in the Arabian peninsular, and it is possible that some medical knowledge of other communities could have been known in Makka or Madina at the time of the prophet.

THE QUR’AN: A SOURCE OF TIBB NABAWI

Tibb Qur’ani refers to verses of the Qur’an that relate to diseases of the body and the mind and their treatment.  The Qur’an talks about physical ill health (2:196, 24:61, 48:17, 2:184/5, 1:196, 4:43) and mental ill-health/diseases of the heart (10:57, 2:10, 74:31, 24:48, 2:48, 74:31, 24:50, 22:53, 33:32, 17:52).  Ultimate cure of diseases is from Allah (26:80).  The Qur’an itself is a cure (17:82).  It contains supplications for good health as well as guidance on specific therapy such as honey (16:69), eating only hood halal food avoiding unhealthy haram food (2:168, 2:172-173, 6:118-119, 6:121, 6:145-146, 16:114-118, 5:2, 5:4-6)  and not in excessive amounts (5:90). The Qur’an has many medical teachings and have been referred to by some authors as Islamic medicine (Abdullah no date, Ta-ha, Bar-no date). Many authors, some non-physicians, have written about Tibb Qur’ani (Abdullah-no date, Bar 1981, 1985).  Attempts have been made to provide scientific explanations for Qu’ranic verses related to medicine covering contagion, adwah, alcohol, creation, and medical benefits of fasting.  Attempts have been made to establish medicinal value of plants, like zaitoon, tiin, dates, milk, and fruits, mentioned in the Qur’an as food but not as cures. In general these writings have lacked scientific rigor or accuracy and have created more confusion than clarity.  This approach can also mislead some people into thinking that they know the full reasons behind a certain Qur’anic injunction.  Unless clearly stated in the Qur’an itself or by authentic Sunnah, the reasons behind Qur’anic injunctions are unknowable to us with certainty.  All we can do is research and make Ijtihad, we could be right or wrong. We must have the humility to realize that we may not reach the whole truth and the scientific explanations that we propose may be wrong or may be only part of the explanation. The Qur’an is not a textbook of medicine but a book of moral guidance. It contains basic information and guidance on medical matters leaving the room open for humans to undertake research and fill in the details. Confining medicine to only the teachings in the Qur’an would make it very limited because the Qur’an is very selective in coverage of details  leaving the field open to humans to observe, search for an understand Allah’s signs on earth. Such constraints on the concept of Islamic Medicine would also discourage further research and scientific exploration.

HADITH AS A SOURCE OF TIBB NABAWI

The following were the forms of prophet’s medical teachings: words of the prophet on medical matters, medical treatment practiced by others on the prophet, medical treatments observed the prophet with no objections, medical procedures that the prophet heard/knew about and did not prohibit. The total number of hadiths on medicine is about 300; many do not reach the degree of hasan. Bukhari in his Sahih narrated 129 hadiths directly related to medicine. He devoted two books to medicine: kitaab al tibb and kitaab al mardha There are many other hadiths in Bukhari indirectly related to medicine. Other books of hadith also narrate more hadiths with relevance to medicine. Scholars have collected these hadiths together and some have related them to available medical knowledge. Among these authors are: Abu Nu’aim Ahmad bin Abdillah al Asfahani (d. 430 AH),  Abu al Abbaas Ja’afar bin Muhammad al Mustansiri (d. 432 H), Shams al Ddiin Muhammad Ibn Ahmad al Dhahabi (d. 748 H), Ibn  Qayyim al Jawziyat (d. 751 AH / 1350 CE), Jalaluddin Abd al Rahman al Suyuti  (d. 911 AH), and Abu al Hasan Nur al ddiin Ali Bin Muhammad al jazaar al Masri (d. 914 H). In his book, A Tibb al Nabawi, Imaam Ibn al Qayim al Jawziyat mentions many medical conditions for which the Prophet provided guidance.  He interpreted the hadiths using the available medical knowledge of his day. This book needs rewriting and it will look very different if written interpreting the prophetic traditions using today's medical knowledge.

C. CLASSIFICATION OF TIBB NABAWI:

PREVENTIVE TIBB NABAWI

The classification of traditions relating to medicine depends on the state of knowledge and changes with time and place. Jalaluddin al Suyuti published a book on tibb nabawi and divided medicine into 3 types: traditional, spiritual and preventive. Most of tibb nabawi is preventive medicine which is a very advanced concept given the level of scientific knowledge at the prophet's time and certainly must have been divinely inspired. Al Suyuti (1994) listed preventive medical measures such as food and exercise. Other preventive measures taught in hadith include: quarantine for epidemics, hijr sihhi, forbidding urination in stagnant water, bawl fi mai raqid, use of tooth stick, siwaak, precautions in the house at night: fire & pests, leaving a country because of its water and climate.

SPIRITUAL TIBB NABAWI

Study of tibb nabawi reveals that there are spiritual aspects of healing and recovery. Prayer, dua, recitation of the Qur’an, and remembrance of Allah play a central role. Psychosomatic diseases could respond to spiritual approaches. The use of ruqyat (surat al fatiha, al mu’awadhatain) falls between physical curative and spiritual. The curative part of ruqyat can be understood in modern terms in the way the psyche can modulate immune mechanisms that protect against disease.

CURATIVE TIBB NABAWI

Ibn Qayim al Jawziyat listed many diseases with their recommended treatments from tibb nabawi. Diseases in tibb nabawi treatable by natural remedies: fever, humma;  bowel movements, istitlaq al batan; dropsy, istisqa; wounds, jarh; epilepsy, sar’a; sciatica, ‘irq al nisa; temperaments, tabau’; skin itch, hakk al jism; pleurisy, dhaat al janb;  headache and hemicrania, sidau and shaqiiqat; inflammation of the throat, ‘adhrat;  enlargement of the heart, al maf’uud; ophthalmia, al ramad; catalepsy, khudran al kulli; pimples, bathrat; skin eruptions, awraam;  food poisoning, sum;  witchcraft, sihr; and head lice. He also mentioned other diseases like: plague, leprosy, eye diseases, throat and tonsils, diarrhea, abdominal disease, fever, plague, snake bite, scorpion bite, food contamination by a fly, headache, nose bleeds, teeth, cough, dropsy, sprain, fracture, bite by rabid dog, and the evil eye. The medical treatments mentioned were honey, al 'asal; cold water for fever, al mau al barid; diet, ghadha; milk, al laban; camel milk; camel urine. The black seed, al habba al sauda, was especially emphasised. The surgical treatments mentioned were: cupping, al hijaam; cauterization, al kayy; venesection with cauterization, qatiu al uruuq wa al kayy.

D. APPLICATION OT TIBB NABAWI TODAY

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

There are 3 aspects that we have to deal with regarding modern application of tibb nabawi. (a) is tibb nabawi part of the sharia? (b) what is the scope of tibb nabawi? (b) spatio-temporal changes (c) empirical research on tibb nabawi.

TIBB NABAWI AS PART OF THE SHARIAT:

A correct answer to this question requires clarifying the very concept of shariat. The regulations about salat, menstruation, and toilet hygiene are part of the shariat rules that are immutable and there is no dispute about them. There are other regulations about the government, ahkam sultaniyat,  that are part of the shariat but that change with circumstances. We can therefore distinguish two parts of the shariat: (a) fixed and immutable and applicable to all places and times and (b) fixed general principles whose details of application change with place and time. If we take the meaning of shariat in (b) above we can conclude that prophetic medicine is part of Islamic shariat that can change and grow using ijtihad and empirical research to apply general shariat principles to changing circumstances.

SCOPE OF TIBB NABAWI

Tibb Nabawi as reported to us did not cover every conceivable disease at the time of the Prophet neither can it cover all ailments today or in the future in various parts of the world.  This is easy to understand from the context that although the Prophet practiced medicine, his mission was not medicine and he was not a full-time physician.  The hadiths of the Prophet should not be looked at as a textbook of medicine.  They should be used for the diseases that they dealt with.  The proper way to get additional medical knowledge is through research and looking for signs of Allah in the universe (2:164, 3:190, 10:5-6, 30:20-27, 39:59, 51:20-23).

SPATIO-TEMPORAL CHANGES

Whatever the Prophet said or did was valid and must be followed because he never uttered any untruth even when joking. The ijtihad of the prophet even in worldly matters was protected, ma'suum. The Qur'an and hadith have records of divine intervention to comment on the prophet's ijtihad on worldy matters such his advice on some aspects of agriculture that he later withdrew. Thus the record of authentic hadith that we have is valid whether in 'aqidat or worldly matters.  The attempt to distinguish between the medical teachings of the prophet-messenger and as a human living in Arabia at a particular historical epoch is not easy and is of no practical significance.  The question is whether all or some of the tibb nabawi should be used today.  If the diagnosis of a disease and all the circumstances surrounding it are exactly like those at the time of the Prophet, then we have no hesitation in saying tibb nabawi should be used. In actual practice it is difficult to ascertain that the conditions are the same.  Changes in disease pathology, changes in the  genetic pool of the patients, changes in the genetic pool of the medicinal plants, weather and climatic conditions are among many variables that may make a particular remedy recommended by the Prophet not appropriate for a medical condition today. The circumstances of time and place have changed. Indiscriminate use of the historical remedies could be using the right drug for the wrong disease. There is even a more serious linguistic problem. The meaning of words has changed. What was called fever in the 1^st century AH may not be the same as the meaning of the same world today. Even medicinal plants like the black seed may not be exactly the same plant. We can therefore conclude that the teachings of tibb nabawi can only be a foundation to guide and encourage scientific research for remedies that are suitable for our times.

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON TIBB NABAWI:

 There is a lot of scientific interest in prophetic teachings on medicine. In Egypt for example many institutions are involved in research on traditional remedies: universities, the National Research Center, the Desert Institute, and the Horticultural Department of the Ministry of Agriculture. Many medicinal plants including the black seed have been investigated extensively and have been commercialised (Sayed 1980). The black seed (nigella sativa) is an example of a prophetic remedy that has been studied extensively by both Muslims and non-Muslims. Animal research has shown that the black seed is a potent anti-hypertensive (Tahir et al. 1993) and respiratory stimulant (Tahir at al 1993). It was shown to act against bacterial infection in mice (Hanafy  et al. 1991). Al-Awadi et al (1991) studied the effect of a plant mixture including black seed on liver gluconeogenesis in rats with induced diabetes. Salomi et al (1991) studied the inhibitory effects of the black seed on chemical carcinogenesis in rats. Nair et al (1991) studied the modulatory effect of the black seed on toxicity in rats induced by a cis-platinum, a cancer treatment drug. Keshri et al (1995) studied the post-coital contraceptive effects of the black seed in rats. El-Dakhakhny (1965) studied the pharmacological properties of the black seed. Toppozada et al (1965) studied the antibacterial properties of the black seed with clinical applications. El-Fattary (1975) isolated and described the anti-bacterial principles from the black seed. Chakravarty (1993) studied the inhibition of histamine release from mast cells by the black seed. Salomi et al (1992) studied the anti-tumor activity of the black seed. Human studies of the black seed have also been undertaken. Akhtar et al (1991) studied the effect of the black seed on nematode worm infection in children. Haq et al (1995) studied the effect of the black seed on human lymphocytes and polymorphonuclear leucocyte phagocytic activity. Laboratory studies provided scientific support for the traditional use of the black seed and its derived products As a treatment for rheumatism and related inflammatory diseases (Houghton et al 1995). The study of the black seed as a medicine has even extended to its side effects since no medicine however useful is free from side effects. Steinmann et al (1997) recorded occurrence of contact dermatitis after topical use of the black seed. Tennekoon et al. (1991) studied the possible hepato-toxicity of the black seed.

E. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE CHALLENGES

From the survey above we can conclude that tibb nabawi is an authentic and valid medical system. The general principles of this system are applicable at all times and all places. The specific remedies taught by the Prophet (PBUH) are valid and useful. They however can not be used today without undertaking further empirical research

3.0 ISLAMIC MEDICINE, mafhum al tibb al islami

A. CONFUSION BETWEEN MUSLIM AND ISLAMIC

The concept of Islamic medicine has been understood to mean different things by different people at different times.  There has been a proliferation of writings on Medicine from an Islamic perspective by both physicians and non-physicians (Ullman 1978, Athar 1993, Said 1976, El Kadhi 1980, Madkhur 1987, Akkibi 1957, Nadvi 1983, Rahman, Kasule 1980 1981) as well as a general interest in health-related issues such as diet, lifestyle (Sakr, Ali et al. 1987).  Scientific research has been undertaken by Dr El Kadhi in Florida, USA.  Starting in the early 1980s international conferences and conventions on Islam and Medicine have been held in several countries (IOIM 1980, 1981). The greatest confusion has been semantic with many dire practical manifestations.  ‘Islamic’ and ‘Muslim’ Medicine have been confused. The terms ‘Islamic’ and ‘Muslim’ are used interchangeably as if they mean the same (Said 1976, Ibn al Qayyim 1993). Traditional medicine practised by Muslim communities at some epochs in history or in our times has erroneously been called Islamic medicine. The semantic confusion between the adjectives ‘Islamic’ and ‘Muslim’ need not continue.  ‘Islamic’ refers to values, ideals, guiding principles, and application of the Qur’an and Sunnah. ‘ Muslim’ refers to people who self-identify as Muslims as well as their activities and institutions.  They may not fully follow all the teachings of Islam.  Thus Islamic Medicine the ideal, is not the same as Muslim medicine, which is the actual historical or contemporary reality of Muslim societies (Kasule 1980). Islam is objective and universal.  Islamic Medicine would therefore be the true and objective medicine that all people would accept irrespective of their geographical location, cultural or religious background. The continuing confusion in the minds of many Muslim physicians about what constitutes Islamic Medicine calls for this fresh attempt at definition and conceptualization of Islamic Medicine.

B. CRITIQUE OF VARIOUS DEFINITIONS OF ISLAMIC MEDICINE

OBJECTIVE CRITERIA

Ahmad El Kadhi presented a paper at the First International Conference on Islamic Medicine held in Kuwait in January 1980 (Athar 1993) and proposed 6 distinguishing criteria of Islamic medicine and using statistics and medical experience in the US argued that modern western medicine did not fulfill the criteria of being (a) excellent and advanced; (b) based on faith and divine ethics; (c) guided and oriented, ie consistent and logical; (d) comprehensive, paying attention tot he body and the spirit, the individual and the society; (e) universal, utilizing all useful resources and offers its services to all mankind; (f) scientific. Two of the 6 criteria require a re-examination.  Criterion (a) should not be taken in an absolute way.  A medical system’s excellence or advancement is a relative assessment based on the knowledge and resources available at a particular time and a particular place. Medical systems are continuously improving making it virtually impossible to classify them at a particular point in time as excellent.  Criterion (e) about medicine being scientific could better be defined as based on objective research using all sources of knowledge available including revelation.  The word ‘scientific’ and ‘scientific method’ have been misused as representing objectivity when in practice we know that there are many in-built biases in today’s medical research that reflect subjective opinions, philosophies, and world views.  This is in addition to fraud and incompetence that are reported in the press.

VALUES AND ETHICS

Use of values and ethics as defining characteristics was seen as an improvement on the definition of Islamic Medicine using operational criteria. The criteria are difficult to measure and compare across different systems of medicine. Dr. Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr. in a paper presented to the first International Islamic Medicine Conference Kuwait (Kasule 1980) argued that Islamic medicine can be defined only as values and ethics and not as any specific medical procedures or therapeutic agents.  This definition allows Islamic medicine to be a universal all-embracing concept that has no specific or particular time-space characteristics. A definition based only on values is however too general to be useful operationally.  Values can be very subjective and difficult to define exactly.

ETHICAL PHYSICIANS

There is an argument that you can get to Islamic medicine by ‘Islamizing” the physician especially during training.  Then you are sure that his research, work and practice will be in conformity with the teachings of Islam. Naqib (1984) proposed a complete Islamically-based education system for an aspiring physican starting from elementary to post graduate levels including describing attributes of a physician, his rights and obligations. Deep study of medicine with reflection shows the physician the majesty of the creator and this deepens and strengthens iman  (Jalabi 1974, Jalabi 1978, Kasule 1980).  A believing physician will be more ethical in his research and practice. Ethics involves: making sure the physician has the appropriate level of knowledge and skill, charging reasonable fees for services, etiquette with patients especially of the opposite gender, treating patients after their consent. There have been several attempts to define medical ethics for a Muslim physician, ancient and modern.  Al Tabari described the Islamic code of medical ethics in 970 AD to include the following:  personal characteristics of the physician, obligations towards patients, obligations towards the community, obligations towards colleagues, and obligations to his assistants.  The Islamic Medical Association of the US and Canada adopted the Oath of a Muslim Physician in 1977 as an alternative to the Hippocratic oath.  The Islamic Code of Medical Ethics issued by the International Organization of Islamic Medicine Kuwait 1981. Amine and El Kadhi (Athar, 1993) based medical ethics on the Qur’an “the physician must believe in God, and in the Islamic teachings and practice it in private and public life; be grateful to his parents, teachers, and elders; be humble, modest, kind, merciful, patient, and tolerant; follow the path of the righteous;  and always seek God’s support.  The Muslim physician must stay abreast of current medical knowledge, continuously improve his skills, seek help whenever needed, and comply with legal requirements governing his profession; realize that God is the maker and owner of his patient’s body and mind and treat him within the framework of God’s teachings; realize that life was given to man by God, that human life starts at the time of conception, and that human life cannot be taken away except by God or with His permission; realize that God is watching and monitoring every thought and deed; follow God’s guidelines as his only criteria, even if they differ with popular demand or the patient’s wishes; not recommend nor administer any harmful material; render needed help regardless of financial ability or ethnic origin of the patient; offer needed advice with consideration for both the patient’s body and mind; protect the patient’s confidentiality; adopt an appropriate manner of communication; examine a patient of the opposite sex in the presence ot a third person whenever feasible; not criticize another physician in the presence of patients or health personnel, refuse payment for treatment of another physician or his immediate family; and strive to use wisdom in all his decisions”.

Ethics alone cannot change a medical system.  The saying of Othman bin Affan is very relevant here ‘Allah can remove things through the ruler what is not removed by the Qur’an”.  Moral values alone may not be enough to change the reality.  The physician may be good and ethical but if the system he is working is in unethical, he will be ineffective.  We therefore cannot define a medical system by its ethics alone. It is not enough to say that Islamic medicine is what good Muslim physicians practise.

C. CRITIQUE OF VARIOUS MANIFESTATIONS OF ISLAMIC MEDICINE

EARLY MUSLIM MEDICINE

Much has been written about Muslim contributions to medicine (Shahine 1971, Graziani 1980, Hunain 1985, Ullman 1978, Andalusi 1985, Dib 1979, Nadvi 1983, Najjar 1986, Said 1976).  Some is with justifiable pride.  Some is exaggerated and manifests a certain amount of an inferiority complex vis a vis the west.  We are trying to tell the west that even though our situation today is bad we were great in history and we taught them medicine.  Some claims are valid and provable whereas others cannot be sustained.  Ibn Sina was undoubtedly a great physician whose influence spanned many centuries.  The Claim that Al Zahrawi was the first surgeon in the world (Dib 1989) is preposterous.

Old Muslim medicine passed through 3 stages. The first stage, the school of commentators on Greek works (madrasat shurrah al ighriqiyin) lasted from the 7^th to the 9^th century AD.  It was a period of translation of foreign sources (Greek, Syriac, Hindi, Persian) into Arabic.  some of the existing Arab folk medicine was also incorporated (Hamaidan-no date).  The second stage, 9^th - 13^th centuries AD, was a period of original research to add to and enrich the translated material.  Hospitals and medical schools were established, medical procedures were refined, and physicians were licensed to make sure they had sufficient skills and knowledge.  Dr Jalal Musa (1972) described the research methodology of what he called Arab medicine as empirical observation.  He based these conclusions on a detailed study of 2 representative physicians: Ibn Sina and Al Razi.  The third stage, after the 13^th century, witnessed the decline of science and knowledge in general.  Some Muslim scholars preserved the knowledge they had and passed it on to Europe. 

Several factors contributed to the growth of Muslim Medicine.  The most important impetus and momentum for inquiry and scientific exploration from the golden era of the Prophet and the Khulafa al Rashidiin. Pax Islamica  over a wide multinational empire with relative stability and rulers who patronized learning assisted the growth of medical knowledge.  However the environment in which that knowledge grew was already in decline especially in the political and moral spheres and it was only a matter of time before the medicine itself decline.  Decline in Muslim science and medicine accompanied the political problems that led to political weakness and the decline was essentially completed by 1350 AD. 

From very early times (as early as 3rd century AH),  biographies of Muslim physicians were compiled and we know a lot about their activities and achievements (Hunain and Andalusi 1985).  The early physicians were encyclopedic in knowledge being competent in many different disciplines.  Some of them were not Muslims; others were recent converts to Islam.  Many were influenced by Greek philosophy then very current.  Ibn Sina was referred to as “al muallim al thalith” the third teacher-philosopher after Aristotle and al Farabi.  Al Razi was called the physician-philosopher while Ibn Sina was called the philosopher-physician (Najar 1986).  Some were very pious Muslims whereas others, being humans, had their personal weaknesses.  Some of the physicians were close to and served the rulers of the time who led regimes that were not fully Islamic.  It is therefore incorrect to generalize and treat every physician at that time as a model for Islamic Medicine. 

Can the medicine practiced in the early Islamic state be called Islamic medicine?  This medicine developed mainly because of the political conditions of a large and relatively stable empire whose rulers encouraged learning.  The rulers and governments of that time can hardly be described as fully islamic.  The golden era of medicine (Abassid era) came a long time after the golden era of Islam, khilafat rashidah. Medical knowledge was translated from other societies and Muslims added to it.  Islamic principles had an impact on the developing medical knowledge but cannot be said to have been the sole guiding spirit.  It is noteworthy that the dean of early Muslim medicine, Al Shaikh al Rais Ibn Sina, did not include an Islamic philosophic or ethical dimension when he defined medicine as ‘knowledge of the states of the human body in health and decline in disease: its purpose is to preserve health and restore it whenever it is lost” (Said 1977). We therefore conclude that this was Muslim medicine and not Islamic Medicine.  The ancestors achieved a lot in their time.  The challenge is for us to achieve in our times.  They had their achievements and we must have our achievements (2:139, 2:141)

CONTEMPORARY MUSLIM TRADITIONAL MEDICINE

Traditional Muslim medicine, a remnants of the medicine practiced in the early Muslim state, has been looked at as Islamic Medicine.  It has changed considerably from what it was in the 3^rd century AH. It has incorporated new treatment modalities and varies from country to country. Folk medicine of any Muslim people could also fit into this category of Muslim traditional medicine. Traditional medicine is practiced as folk medicine or as recognized and officially sanctioned alternative medicine such as the Unani (Arab) medicine in the Indo-Pakistani Peninsular.  The Indian government recognizes 4 traditional medical systems: one of them is unani (Arab) the othes are: ayurveda, siddha,and yoga. The current effort to revive ‘traditional’ Muslim medicine is part of a movement world wide that seeks to revive old remedies.  There are several reasons for this: failure of modern western medicine to reach a big proportion of people especially in rural areas, the realization that there are good things in the traditional systems, increasing assertiveness of third world countries vis a vis Europe and America, and cultural nationalism.  Traditional medicine systems have the advantage of being more human, little dehumanizing technology, and interest in the individual. The World Health Organization passed a resolution in May 1977 that argued ‘interested governments to give adequate importance to the utilization of their traditional systems of medicine with appropriate regulations as suited to their national health systems”. The State of Kuwait is an example of the new interest in Unani medicine.  It invited 2 Indian experts in Unani medicine to visit Kuwait and explore the possibility and potentiality of reviving Unani (Arab) medicine system in Kuwait (Ministry of Public Health 1977).  The 2 experts issued a 55-page report with 18 recommendations among which were: establishment of research institutes and libraries for Unani medicine, publication of a journal, cultivation of medicinal plants in Kuwait or their importation from India, Schools and medical colleges to teach this system of medicine. Two practitioners of Unani medicine. Razzack and Umm Fazal (1977) argued that ‘The Arab system of medicine is as much scientific as any other branch of modern knowledge... if by medical science we mean that branch of knowledge which treats diseases and provides their treatment in a systematic manner following a definite method in its experimental research, employing observations in deducing principles, testing deductive and inductive conclusions by experiments, pressing into its service the accumulated experience of ages in the various branches of knowledge’.

It is clear from the foregoing that there is nothing, Islamically speaking, to distinguish the unani system from any other traditional system of medicine. Razzack admits that the famous Greek physician, Hippocrates (460 BC) was the father of  unani medicine.  Arabs, Muslims and Indians added to it and developed it to what it is today.  It is not known to all Muslim societies. Some of the beneficial medicinal plants will not grow in other parts of the Muslim world.  It is confined to a particular time and particular place.  Islam and Islamic Medicine must be suitable for every place and every epoch. There is therefore no reason to label Unani Medicine as ‘Islamic’.  The best it can be called is Muslim medicine or medicine of Muslim societies.

ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

Some authors have looked at “Islamic Medicine” as a reaction to and a complete rejection of modern western medicine.  Other authors have looked at natural therapeutics (diet, folk medicine, Hakim’s medicine, chiropractic, allopathy, naturopathy, naprapathy, and homeopathy) from an Islamic perspective and have argued that they are encouraged by Islam and are alternatives to drug therapy that has several limitation (Ali et al 1993). Including alternative medicine among perspective of Islamic medicine implies that the mainstream medical  system to which it is an alternative is non-Islamic.

SUPERSTITION AND MAGIC

In the centuries of decline, the concept of Islamic Medicine has sometimes, in ignorance, been reduced to magical practices, fortune telling, amulets, and talismans. Magic or sorcery have been mentioned in the Qur’an but the Qur’an is however very clear that magic cannot succeed (2:102, 21:3, 20:66, 113:4, 20:69, 36:77) and therefore cannot be beneficial medicine. Some people have claimed powers to deal with and control the jinns for medical or evil purposes. This is shirk and is rejected by Islam.

MEDICAL and SCIENTIFIC MIRACLES OF THE QUR’AN

Over the past 15 years efforts have been made to establish the ‘scientific miracles’ of the qur’an.  The World Muslim League set up an independent secretariat for this. Several international conferences, seminars have been held.  Many books and videos have been produced and have been used widely by dawa workers calling people to Islam. Murice Bucaille was one of the earliest authors to write about science and the Qur’an.  Other authors and investigators have ever since investigated several aspects: geology, astronomy, embryology etc. The most investigated aspect as far as medical science is concerned has been the field of embryology. This field intrigued ancient writers. Al Suyuti 1994) wrote about embryology and referred to the Qur’anic teachings on the matter.  Sheikh Abdul Majied al Zindani (Moore et al 1982) has been a leading scholar of embryology.  He has collaborated with leading embryologists and has high quality publications. The main finding has been the correspondence of Qur’anic with scientific observations. The concept of establishing scientific miracles of the Qur’an seems simple but has dangerous consequences and we have very strong reservations about its continuation. The stated reasons for the effort of establishing the scientific miracles can be inferred from the Islamic epilogue to the book by Moore and Zindani (1982, p. 458f-g) on embryology: “Allah gave signs to His messengers to prove their truthfulness. These were in the form of miracles which man cannot bring about.... Allah has preserved the Qur’an from any alteration and made its letters and words part of the miracle of the Prophet’s truthfulness. This miracle consisted of the Lord’s knowledge revealed literally in the Qur’an and by meaning in the hadith. As scientific knowledge advances we find that what has been discovered had already been mentioned in the Qur’an and Hadith a long time ago. This reveals to us that knowledge which came upon Mohammed (peace be upon him) must have come from Allah, as promised by Him (41:53)”.  Thus the miracle of the last of the Prophets is continuously renewed as time goes on..... The Qur’an has stated unequivocally, that the scholars (scientists included) are the ones who will know that it is the truth (34:6, 22:54, 2949)....  The words of the Maker are a great help to those who study the results of His work, the Qur’anic statements are therefore necessary to guide those who study Allah’s creatures’.

We feel that the Qur’an is its own best defense or proof. Its miracle is within it and does not require any external scientific investigation to prove it. Any attempt to compare the Qur’an and science or put the Qur’an side by side with science is comparing unequals. Science is not stable. What are facts and proved theories today turn out tomorrow to have been wrong.  Science is a product of human effort.  Besides deliberate fraud and falsification of research data, humans can make errors.  The Qur’an on the other hand is revelation.  No falsehood can approach it from any direction.  Its facts are absolute, objective and do not change with time or circumstances.  The very idea of trying to compare or relate 2 such unequal things is in our opinion not appropriate. Another very dangerous consequence of this exercise is that science can establish  a scientific fact in a verse of the Qur’an.  This is a strong motivation for a non-Muslim to believe in the truth of the Qur’an.  Suppose the science changes after some further research and the earlier theories are found no longer valid?  Will that disturb the belief of the individual concerned?  Will he lose confidence in science?. We therefore conclude that investigating scientific miracles of the Qur’an is at the least a questionable enterprise.  Before its long-term results are understood, it will be advisable not to include it among the active perspectives of Islamic medicine.

MEDICAL JURISPUDENCE, fiqh tibbi

Ijtihad on ethical, legal and moral issues in medicine is an area of current concern. Biomedical technology has given rise to many issues that are of medico-legal or ethical importance: contraceptives, sterilization, abortion, euthanasia, organ transplantation, artificial organs, amniocentesis for sex diagnosis, eugenics, genetic engineering, articifial insemination/in vitro fertilization, sperm banks, surrogate mothers, and ova banks (Ebrahim 1993, Bar 1985). Muslim physicians and fuqaha have been meeting to discuss these issues.  A seminar on Islamic views of some medical practices held in Kuwait in April 1978 and attended by both fuqaha and physicians discussed the following issues: sale of organs, cosmetic surgery, unfertilized ova, the length of the menstrual period and the length of gestation. The Islamic Fiqh Academy of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) has in its past 6 sessions discussed the following issues:  transplantation (reproductive organs, brain and nervous tissue), life support in terminal cases, milk banks, family planning and birth control, use of fetal tissue and organs in scientific experiments and organ transplantation. The Fiqh Council of North America has resolved similar issues. The problem encountered is that the physicians and fuqaha have different education backgrounds making it difficult for them to communicate effectively. Resolution of medico-legal and ethical issues lies at the intersection/interface of medicine and Islamic sharia. It is a legitimate occupation of a Muslim physician but cannot in itself be called Islamic medicine.

SOCIAL WELFARE and SOCIAL ADVOCACY

Providing services for the needy: Kasule (1982) in a paper titled ‘Islamic Medicine in Africa: New Perspectives and Challengers’ proposed and made a case for “a new dimension of Islamic medicine in its relevance to solving the health problems of the poor and least privileged people in the developing world”. Medical care fulfils one of the maqasid al sharia: preservation of life.  The Qur’an talks about the importance of life. (5:32). It is part of caring for others ‘he who does not care about condition of Muslims is not one of them’. Providing services is just one function of Islamic Medicine and would not be called Islamic Medicine.  Any system of medicine could provide service for the needy.  Therefore this is not a unique distinguishing characteristic.

Advocating or lobbying for the less privileged: Poor health on a global or even local levels is not due to absolute lack of medical resources but their maldistribution. Some have too much whereas others no access even to the most rudimentary of services. Dr. Omar Hasan Kasule, Sr. (1982) argued that “the health conditions of the poor of the world are desparate... participation in efforts to change these conditions for the better is a relevant, contemporary and future role for Islamic Medicine. With the present corpus of medical and scientific knowledge, most of the health problems can be solved. What is lacking is the will and compassion on the part of the global community to enable benefits of that knowledge to reach the needy”. Assuring access to care is one of the functions of an Islamized medical system but is not a unique defining characteristics.

Elimination of social causes of ill-health: Modification of behavior and lifestyle could eliminate a big proportion of disease. Malnutrition (excessive intake), alcohol and drug addition, sexual promiscuity are underlying causes of much ill-health both mental and physical. Islam has adequate guidance on how to deal with these social problems through the injunction of amr bi al maruf and nahy an al munkar. Ordering good and forbidding bad is a function of all people and organizations. Therefore we cannot cite this as a distinguishing characteristic of Islam Medicine.

D. ISLAMIC MEDICINE AS PARADIGMS, METHODOLOGY, & VALUES

The following definition of Islamic Medicine is proposed after consideration and rejection of the alternatives described above. Islamic Medicine is defined as medicine whose basic paradigms, concepts, values, and procedures conform to or to do not contradict the Qur’an and Sunnah.  It is not specific medical procedures or therapeutic agents used in a particular place or a particular time.  Islamic Medicine is universal, all-embracing, flexible, and allows for growth and development of various methods of investigating and treating diseases within the frame-work described above. This definition calls for basic transformation of current medical systems.  Islamic Medicine thus becomes the result of an Islamic critique and reformulation of the basic paradigms, research methodology, teaching, and practice of medicine. This process of conceptual transformation, also called Islamization of Medicine, is described below. The end-result of the Islamization process will not be a medical system for Muslims only but for the whole humanity because Islam is a set of universla and objective values.  Islamization is not theologizing, localizing of parochializing medicine but making it excellent for all.

The above-mentioned understanding of Islamic medicine is gradually changing the practice of medicine in the ummat. Islamic hospitals and clinics are being established in many Muslim and non-Muslim countries. There is increasing research inspired by the Islamic medicine movement. Medical faculties are being established on the same philosophy. In years to come, Muslim physicians will be able to make a marked impact on mainstream medical practice by introducing Islamic values to it.

E. THE NEED FOR REFORM IN MEDICINE

CONCEPTUAL and MORAL PROBLEMS

European medicine has some paradigms that we do not accept as Muslims.  Death is rejected as a natural phenomenon and resources are wasted in terminal illnesses.  Aging is also not accepted as a normal process and research is now being undertaken to reverse its course.  There is no balance and equilibrium in selecting treatment modalities.  Treatments are selected for their effectiveness against the condition without regard to what other harm they may cause to people  and the eco-system.  Some treatments of yesterday are the diseases of today.  Too much narrow specialization leads to lack of a holistic approach to the patient.  The physician turns a blind eye to moral and social issue of the day that affect the health of his patients and claims that his responsibility is medical care only. The secularized medicine has no consistent set of ethics.  Malpractice, fraud, physician misbehavior are common.  Materialistic pursuits are predominant. The highly secular environment does not acknowledge a spiritual or a religious dimension in medicine. There are biases in selecting, funding and publication of research.  Powerful political, economic forces that reflect the European world-view and philosophy of life are involved. The scientific method and its empirical observation was bequeathed to Europe by Muslims. The Europeans took the letter but not the spirit of the method. They proceeded to misused it by making empirical observation and experimentation the only source of knowledge to the exclusion of revelation.

PROBLEMS IN THE USE OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method has the following characteristics: (a) open-ended and self correcting; theories are abandoned if not sustained by facts (b) repeatability (c) consistency (d) verifiability (e) empirical knowledge is knowledge par excellence. European science’s origins can be traced to Egypt and ancient Mesopotamia.  It was passed on to the Greeks.  There was a decline of science in the roman era and suppression of scientific inquiry in the dark ages by the Catholic Church.  During the European dark ages, Muslims preserved and developed Greek science and systematized the empirical scientific methodology and passed their knowledge on to Europe just before renaissance. The renaissance was mainly this rediscovery of Greek knowledge.  Renaissance was accompanied by the rise of rationality, secularization, and loss of trust in organized religion in the form of the Christian Church.  This led European to misusing the scientific method by claiming that it alone was the source of valid knowledge to the exclusion of revelation.

The present use of the scientific method has several limitations that many physicians are not aware of:  limitations of observation, limited sources of knowledge, no positive moral context, no complete understanding of the human being, not being part of a holistic system and a parochial or local Euro-centric context. Human observation and senses have limitations in observing and interpreting phenomena. Some phenomena cannot be observed/perceived correctly. The priority assumptions, biases, and knowledge that the observer has affect the observation, perception and conclusions.  It is therefore wrong to rely on empirical observation as the sole source of knowledge. The two sources of knowledge in Islam are revelation, wahy, and the empirical world, kawn. Intellect, ‘aql, is a tool given to the human race to use both sources.  Western epistemology denies wahy as a source of knowledge. European epistemology is based on matter, denies religion or is sometimes actively anti-religion. It does not accept the unseen, al ghaib

MORAL PROBLEMS

European science denies morality as a factor in its work. It operates in a presumed moral vacuum. There is no recognition of absolute morality. It has adopted an even more dangerous concept. The attempt to solve social and medical problems of a moral or spiritual nature by use of technology. Empirical observation is in itself not sufficient to fully describe and understand the human being and his society.  Values, motivation, attitudes, beliefs are difficult to measure let alone understand from empirical study. The tools available to the scientist, human senses and instruments, extensions of senses, have an inherent inability to see the whole human picture.  Additional guidance and information from the creator, the all-knowing, is needed. Only Allah knows and understand humans fully. Thus knowledge of humans that can come only from revelation must be considered alongside the empirical observations for valid understanding.

PROBLEMS OF OBJECTIVITY

The scientific method has been directed to parochial and Euro-centric concerns and interests (political, military, economic). The priorities of research and application of knowledge are not based on objective and universal criteria. European epistemology pretends to be universal.  In practice it is parochial and reflects the cultural and religious heritage of Europe. Claim of objectivity by European epistemology is not true. Many of the so-called objective empirical observations actually reflect biases and presumptions of the western world-view. Science is fragmented with no overall holistic picture. Narrow specialization has led to rapid advances in scientific research but in the process only the trees are seen but not the forest.

4.0 ISLAMIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE: CONCEPT and PRACTICE

A. THE CONCEPT OF ISLAMIZATION:

Islamization of knowledge has become a very popular term and has taken on an identity of its own such that the semantics are debated without dealing with the underlying concepts. Islamization is a process of recasting the corpus of human knowledge to conform with the basic tenets of aqidat al tauhid. When we talk about Islamic or Islamized knowledge we should be careful not to imply that there is knowledge that is not Islamic. All true knowledge whatever its kind and source is Islamic. Islamic knowledge has no time or space constraints because Islam is universal being suitable for every place and time. Islamized knowledge is for the benefit of all humanity and not monopolized by Muslims. Islamization is a corrective reformative movement. The process of Islamization does not call for re-invention of the wheel of knowledge but calls for reform, correction, and re-orientation. Islamization is an evolutionary and not revolutionary movement.

B. HISTORY OF ISLAMIZATION

EARLY EFFORTS AT ISLAMIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE

The concept of Islamization of knowledge is not new in Islam. The 2-3^rd centuries H witnessed a process of Islamising Greek knowledge with much enthusiasm. The process was not without its pitfalls that have been recorded in history. Modern scholars working on Islamisation of their disciplines will benefit from the previous experience to avoid repeating many of the past mistakes. The early Islamisation process started with astronomical, physical, biological, and mathematical sciences. The process led to the development of the disciplines of theology, kalaam, and Islamic philosophy, falsafat, as counterparts to Greek concepts. The early Muslim scientists like us today felt the problem of dichotomy of knowledge keenly and tried to bridge the gap with varying success. They not only tried to Islamise foreign knowledge but also embarked on developing new knowledge through research. However these efforts could not be continued in the latter part of the abassid era due to general decline of the state.

Greek scientific knowledge was transferred along with Greek philosophy and ideas. These were eventually to cause decline of Muslim scientific creativity because many did not agree with basic tenets held by Muslims. Greek science was not very experimental and depended more often on deduction rather than induction. It thus discouraged the scientific tarbiyat of the Qur’an which emphasized observation of nature as a basis for conclusions. Thus in the initial period there was scientific growth due to transfer of knowledge. The momentum of scientific advance could however not be maintained because Greek ideas and philosophy created much confusion in the ummat and could not encourage more rapid growth of empirical knowledge.

RECENT EFFORTS AT ISLAMIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE

Motivation: The recent Islamisation movement had its earliest beginnings towards the close of the 14^th century H when several Muslim thinkers wrote about the cultural and intellectual invasion of the ummat promoted by an imposed and foreign education system. The responses to this invasion varied. Some just rejected the European education system and European sciences altogether. Some Accepted them whole-heartedly. Some others accepted them with reservations their argument being that they could be de-Europeanised. The main thrust of the Islamization movement has been to de-europeanize education systems.

World Conferences On Muslim Education: The First World Conference on Islamic Education held in Makka in 1397 AH/1977 AD was a major event in the Islamisation movement. The Conference succeeded in defining the problem of dichotomy or duality of knowledge and recommended several general approaches to its solution. Follow-up conferences that elaborated practical approaches to solve the problem were held at Islamabad in 1400 AH/1980 AD, Dhakka in 1401 AH/1981 AD, Jakarta in 1402 AH/1982 AD, and Cairo in 1985. The movement thereafter appeared to lose momentum and a sense of direction until a 6^th one in Capetown in September 1996. The 6^th conference was radically different from the previous ones. It had no government representatives and had a limited agenda: to produce a curriculum for Islamic Schools in South Africa that would serve as a model for other countries.

Educational institutions: Practical steps to Islamise knowledge were undertaken in this period. Many Islamic elementary and secondary schools were established with the aim of making their curricula reflect the teachings of Islam. Islamic universities were also established in Malaysia in 1983, Niger in ….., Uganda in…., Islamabad in….. These were essentially modern universities modeled on the European model within an Islamic context.

Academic institutions: Specialised institutions were set up to spear-head the Islamisation process: The International Institute of Islamic Thought in Virginia, USA; the Islamic Academcy in Cambridge, UK; the Muslim Education Trust of Nigeria; The Muslim Education Trust in UK; Iqra International Education Foundation in Chicago, USA.

C. REFORM OF DISCIPLINES:

RATIONALE OF STARTING WITH DISCIPLINES

Discipline reform is the most important item on the agenda of the contemporary Islamization movement. Islamization will have to start at the level of disciplines. This is because knowledge has become so specialized that no effort at general islamization can succeed. Each discipline has developed its own unique epistemology, methodology, and corpus of knowledge. It is also realized that the effort must start with existing disciplines of knowledge. The alternative of starting from a tabula rasa is not practical and will make the process of islamization both long and expensive. Such an approach will relegate the present corpus of human knowledge to the dust-bin of history, an unrealistic alternative. If such an approach were taken, the Muslims will be busy reconstructing knowledge from its foundations while others are going ahead using available knowledge with its defects. Muslims would then become victims of a time lag that will be greatly accentuated by the rapid IT development.

CHARACTERISTICS

Successful reform must have the following characteristics: pro-active intellectual effort, academically and methodologically rigorous, objective, and has practical consequences. A pro-active strategy is not reaction to time or place-bound problems. It has its own vision and agenda and takes the initiative to achieve them. It has a grand vision and a mission seen in the long-term perspective. An intellectual approach based on rational grounds is needed and not emotional excitement that does not long. Intellectual rigor is needed in the analysis of problems and formulation of solutions using a clear and consistent methodology. The Islamization effort will fail rapidly if it becomes an ivory-tower exercise with no grass-roots support. It must stay in touch and close to the actual educational problems of the ummat.

VISION, MISSION, and GOALS

The long-term vision is accelerated growth of objective, universal knowledge that is beneficial to all humanity and allows a harmonious interaction of humans with their physical, social, and spiritual environment. The practical mission is conceptual transformation of the paradigms, methodologies, and uses of disciplines of knowledge to conform to tauhid. The immediate goals: (a) De-Europeanizing basic paradigms of existing disciplines and thus changing them from being parochial to being objective and universal.  (b) Reconstructing paradigms of disciplines using Islamic universal guidelines. (c) Re-classifying the various disciplines of knowledge to reflect universal values and the tauhidi perspective. (d) Reforming the methodology of research to become objective, purposeful, and comprehensive, (e) Encouraging growth of knowledge through research, and (f) inculcating morally correct application of knowledge

SCOPE

Discipline reform will be initially undertaken in the following three main areas: classification of disciplines, tasniif al ‘uluum; epistemology, nadhariyat al ma’arifat; and methodology, mahajiyat al ma’arifat. Classification of disciplines in most universities reflects the European world-view and epistemological assumptions. Some form of re-classification will be needed to reflect tauhidi assumptions. An Islamic epistemological thought must be developed from the Qur’an, the sunnat, and the ummatic intellectual experience over the past 14 centuries. This can incorporate experiences of other communities even if non-Muslim. The methodology of research must be reformed to remove all sources of bias in the selection of fields of investigation, hypothesis formulation, data management and analysis, and reporting of scientific findings. Islamisation will succeed in an ambiance that emphasizes revival of ijtihad and research, motivates researchers and scientists to excel in knowledge, and inculcates correct attitudes to the use of knowledge especially science and technology.

ROLE OF THE QUR'AN

The Qur’an is very central to the discipline reform process but must be used correctly. The Qur’an is not a text-book of any discipline although it has data and facts on various disciplines. The Qur’an gives general principles that establish objectivity and protect against biased research methodology. The Qur’an creates a world-view that encourages research to extend the frontiers of knowledge and its use for the benefit of the whole universe.Scientists are encouraged to work within these Qur’anic parameters to expand the frontiers of knowledge through research, basic and applied.

D. MISUNDERSTANDING THE REFORM PROCESS

REJECTIONIST APPROACH

The process of discipline reform is wont to be mis-understood and mis represented by both proponents and antagonists. Some understand islamization as rejection of the corpus of existing human knowledge and disciplines. That would be rejection of the achievements of human history over the past 6 millenia because all humans of various geographical and ethnic groups contributed to the knowledge available today in various disciplines.  Reform does not imply that all what is in a discipline is un-Islamic. There are many good and true things accepted by Islam in many of the modern disciplines. The good must be preserved and promoted while the bad is expunged. It is wrong to adopt the wrong attitude of throwing away the baby with the dirty bath water.

PAROCHIALIST APPROACH

Some may look at Islamization as an ego trip to create a body of knowledge that is exclusive to Muslims and for their benefit and pride. Reform of disciplines is not theologizing knowledge since Islam is universal and all-embracing. Reform does not seek to parochialize knowledge and tailor it to a particular culture or place. The parochial approach stated in its simplicity is that if the others have their disciplines of knowledge, Muslims must also have their own disciplines of knowledge. Such an argument ignores the universal nature of Islam.

THE CONTENT APPROACH

This approach simply aims at rewriting existing text-books to reflect Islamic themes. Some of the effort may be very superficial such as change of terminology and illustrations without changing the essence. The reform we have in mind is of paradigms, methodology and uses of knowledge and not its contents. Content is changing so rapidly that reforming it is clearly futile; by the time one aspect of content is reformed, the discipline has already moved ahead and the reform is already outdated.

SPITIRUAL REFORM APPROACH

The possibility of discipline reform by spiritual reform of the student, scholar, or researcher has also been suggested at one time or another. Whereas it is possible for a scientist to be good as an individual, it is difficult for him to change his discipline and turn it around on his or her own. A major change involves a system and not an individual.

CURRENT FAILED APPROACHES

Wrong approaches to discipline reform have occurred and these have given the whole process a bad reputation. The following approaches have been used and have not succeeded because they did not address the core issues of the paradigms and methodology of disciplines. ‘Insertion’ of Qur’anic verses and hadiths in an otherwise European piece of writing has been viewed as Islamising that writing. Sometimes the verses inserted have only superficial relevance to the context and the whole exercise is to give a Muslim reader the psychological and emotional satisfaction of reading an ‘Islamic’ piece of writing. Searching for scientific facts in the Qur’an has engaged many Muslim scientists and non-scientists with several and varying underlying motivations. Some want to take a short cut to knowledge by looking it up in the book instead of acquiring it through research. Some aim at proving the comprehensive scope of the Qur’an that covers all disciplines of knowledge including science. It is true that the Qur’an is comprehensive and left out nothing but as general guiding principles and not details of a scientific discipline that must be acquired by research. Searching for Qur’anic proof of scientific facts is the reverse of the process mentioned above. The motivation is to show that the Qur’an mentioned true scientific facts 14 centuries before they were discovered in Europe. Searching for Qur’anic scientific miracles has been used extensively by individuals and groups iuvolved in dawa basically to validate the Qur’an in a scientific way. We feel that the Qur’an is its own proof and does not need the aid of science. It is also illogical to validate the permanent and absolute certainties of the Qur’an using science whose facts, theories, and assertions change on a continuous basis.  Searching for parallels between Islamic and European concepts has been an intellectual pre-occupation of Muslim intellectuals since the early days of contact with Greek knowledge and ideas. Thus approach is apologetic because it pre-supposes the superiority of European ideas and tries to prove that we Muslims have equally good ideas in our intellectual heritage. This approach has helped make many European ideas palatable and acceptable to the Muslim mind. Using Islamic in place of European terminologies has been one of the most superficial approaches. Calling european democracy ‘shura’ does not islamize the concept and practice of democracy; it only makes it easier for the Muslim mind to accept the alien idea as Islamic. Confusion sets in later when the basic contradictions between the european concept of democracy and the Islamic concept of shura. Many Muslim writers have stopped using Arabic translations of european terms or using translations of Islamic terms into European languages to avoid this confusion. They find it preferable to use each term in its original language and definining it. Adding supplementary ideas to the European corpus of knowledge. Attempts have also been made to achieve Islamization without solving the basic problem of dichotomy or duality of knowledge by adding Islamic subjects to European school or university curricula. We have discussed the failed approaches in brief to highlight the possible risk of repeating the same mistakes in the current Islamization effort.

E. PRACTICAL STEPS / TASKS OF THE REFORM PROCESS:

MASTERY OF CLASSICAL ISLAMIC SCIENCES

The first step is obtaining a good grounding in Islamic methodological sciences of of usul al fiqh,  ulum al Qur’an, ulum al hadith, and 'uluum al llughat, This is then followed by reading the Qur’an and sunnat with understanding of the changing time-space dimensions while at the same time knowing limitations of literal reading and interpretations. This is then followed by clarification of basic epistemological issues and relations: wahy and aql, ghaib and shahada, ‘ilm and iman. The classical disciplines provide an authentic Islamic methodology that can be developed and applied to various disciplines of knowledge. Mastery of the disciplines does not necessary require that a scientist consecrate a life-time of specialized study of classical disciplines. What is required is a short, concentrated course of study of the methodological aspects of the classical disciplines and not the details. Such a course can last 6-12 months depending on the initial level of preparation of the scholar.

PRIORITIZATION AMONG DISCIPLINES

Due to limited manpower and material resources, the reform process can not be undertaken for all disciplines at the same time. Some form of prioritization will be necessary. Prioritization does not mean marginalization of some disciplines. It is a rational allocation of manpower and material resources for optimal and rapid results. Disciplines that are more methodological will have to take first priority followed by disciplines that are closely related to social reform and societal change. The order of priority for discipline reform: basic natural sciences, applied sciences and technology,  social sciences, humanities, and Islamic sciences. Natural sciences are trend setters both in the field of methodology and social change. Social sciences will be easier to reform because they have now largely adopted the empirical methodology of the natural sciences. Humanities need to be recast using the Qur’anic methodology of analyzing the growth and decline of human civilizations and societies. Islamic sciences became fossilized over the centuries when ijthad was limited; they need a major revival. They will have to be purged of hellenic, judeo-christian, and other influences and will have to be rebuilt directly on the basis of the Qur’an and authentic sunnat. These important sciences will have to be approached taking the time-space dimension into consideration. Since they represent eternally valid revelation, they must have relevance for each period and each place.

ISLAMIC CRITIQUE OF THE DISCIPLINES

Islamic critique of basic paradigms of various disciplines involves a critical review of the basic assumptions and concepts in the methodology of each discipline using criteria of Islamic methodology and Islamic epistemology. The critique should be balanced pointing out the strengths and weaknesses. It should address the core conceptual issues and avoid being trapped into detailed and sometimes peripheral issues. A good critique should set out with Islamic paradigms as a bench-mark and then work systematically to analyse the discipline. The critique should not be undertaken in a cultural or civilizational vacuum. It should be appreciated that modern disciplines developed in a judeo-christian and greco-roman european environment which is the source of many background unstated

assumptions in each discipline.

REVIEW OF TEACHING MATERIALS

Islamic reviews of existing text-books and teaching materials is undertaken to identify deviations from the tauhidi episteme and the Islamic methodology. This will guide the process of reform by focusing only on areas in the discipline that are not in conformity with the Islamic paradigms. The review is useful in assessing the scale of the task ahead. Many enthusiasts of reform were discouraged as soon as they saw that textbooks and other teaching materials were so many and so voluminous that the task of educational reform can not be achieved in a short time.

PREPARING INTRODUCTIONS TO DISCIPLINES, Muqaddimat al ‘uluum

Purpose of the introduction to the discipline: The first and logical step in the Islamization of a discipline is to write an Islamic introduction to it. This should establish basic Islamic principles and paradigms that determine and regulate the methodology, content, and teaching of a particular discipline. The introduction should set out the major epistemological and methodological issues of the discipline to guide research, teaching, and practical application. Students of the discipline will study the introduction first before embarking on studying the discipline. The student will in this way have an Islamic orientation to the discipline that will enable him or her to deal with the discipline in a critical way. He will be able to recognize aspects of the discipline that agree with the Islamic frame-work and separate them from those that do not. This sets him on the road to new creative thinking that helps him make original contributions to the discipline from the Islamic perspective. The Introduction to the discipline can therefore be looked at as a tool to transform a student from an uncritical consumer of knowledge to one who is critically selective.

Ibn Khuldun’s muqaddimat: A parallel can be drawn with the Ibn Khaldun’s Introduction to History, muqaddimat, which was the first book of his universal History, kitaab al ‘Ibar. Ibn Khaldun’s work is rightfully called the philosophy of History because it presents generalizing and methodological concepts that make sense out of the narration of historical events. We can, in other words, say that the muqaddimat enables a student to understand the study of History. Ibn Khaldun presented a rational/logical, analytical, and encyclopaedic approach to History. He was original in his thinking and developed new terminology to convey his ideas. He explained how the physical environment affects the growth of human society from the most primitive to the most sophisticated urban centers. He explained the determinants of leadership and the political system. He explained the relation between group feeling, ‘asabiyyat, on one hand and the rise and fall of political dynasties on the other. He explained the rise and fall of civilizations and the factors that regulate economic and social conditions. The conclusions presented in the muqaddimat was based on Ibn Khaldun’s wide experience in practical politics as well as his extensive travels in the then known Muslim world. Ibn Khaldun was a Muslim scholar and many of his ideas were influenced by Islamic precepts. The debate is however still open whether the muqaddimat can be considered an Islamic Introduction to History or is just an introduction.

RESEARCH

Discipline reform is not an administrative effort. It is academic and will progress well if there is cumulation of published research. The research will generate more interest and will engage academicians and educators in serious debate about the issues of Islamization. Research can be undertaken on the process of Islamization in its historical form since the 2/3^rd centuries of hegira or its current form to assess the strengths, weaknesses, threats, opportunities, achievements and failures. Some research can be conceptual trying to relate Qur’anic concepts of knowledge to actual problems that educators confront on a daily basis. Some research could take the form of experimental intervention in which selected modules written according to the Islamic methodology and epistemology are used in class-rooms and an assessment is made of their impact and relative effectiveness. Establishment of specialized research institutions will be necessary for continued support of the reform process

TEACHING MATERIAL

Publication and testing of new text-books and other teaching materials is a necessary step towards reform by putting into the hands of teachers and students reformed material. The process of reform will not achieve its ultimate goal of social reform and societal change unless it becomes part of the curricula at schools and universities. There are several Muslim education institutions struggling to provide an islamically-based education. They all complain of the major handicap of not finding enough material to use in the class-room. Any material produced will find a ready audience. It is not necessary to wait until such material is perfected. What is available can be used and can be improved based on feed-back from field experience. Graduates of schools and universities who have used the teaching material will be a different product from those who went through other curricula and will be the true pioneers of Islamization when they in turn start researching and teaching.

APPLIED KNOWLEDGE

Developing applied knowledge in science and technology from basic knowledge will be the last stage of the reform process. This is because in the end it is science and technology that actually lead to changes in society.

5.0 ISLAMIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE IN MEDICINE

A. DECLINE and RENNAISSANCE

Following the golden era of Islam, the initiative for medical development was in Europe. Muslims can still be proud of this because Europeans learned from them. European renaissance in Medicine after the 16^th century can be attributed to medical knowledge preserved and developed by Muslims and passed on to Europe. While Europeans made great strides in medical knowledge, Muslims declined. There are several explanations for the complex phenomenon of decline. It is partly due to the general decline of the Muslim polity and the social instability that occurred. On the other hand we can see the seeds of decline in the transfer of Greek knowledge. Greeks science was very deductive and did not emphasize experimentation and observation. Muslims transferred this Greek knowledge and Islamized it as much as they could. The process of Islamization was however not completed. The scientific spirit of observation, logical reasoning and drawing conclusions that is enshrined in the Qur’an was neglected several times when Muslims followed Greek assertions on medicine blindly without subjecting them to experimental verification. Greek philosophy based on polytheism, magic and sorcery also had its impact on Muslims. Greeks believed in astrology and some Muslim physicians mixed it with medicine. Ibn Sina and the great Muslim physicians of his caliber rejected astrology.  

Muslim  renaissance in Medicine started with the commencement of  the new hijra century 1400 H/1980 CE. Medicine in the ummat is passing through a period of renaissance. There is pride in the past and a determination to excel in the present. This renaissance is manifesting as seminars, conferences, memorial buildings, books, and publications dealing with Islamic medicine. Islamic Medical Associations have been set up and are operating in the US, S Africa, Pakistan, Egypt, Sudan, and Jordan. Among their activities are: activities:  journals, bulletins, conventions, research, direct care services, medicolegal fatwas, advocacy, Islamic clinics and hospitals. There is research on remedies in tibb nabawi and traditional medicine, clinical trials of the use of honey in treatment (diarrhoea, ocular disease, and bladder schistosomiasis), chemical analysis of nigella sativa seed. experimental study of Qur’anic facts on menstrual hygiene, immunological and physiological properties of habba sauda by Dr Ahmad el Kadhi. immunological and physiological impact of tilawat al qur’an. use of dermatoglyphics to study hereditary disease, herbal drugs for intestinal infestations, analysis of herbal remedies mentioned by early physicians for pharmacological activity. Clinical trials of ancient remedies. In the practical arena Islamic relief agencies: medical services in war and devasted areas, medical services for the poor, medical services and dawa. Medico-legal fatwas: medico-fiqhi committees at Rabitat Al Aaalam Al Islami, Organization Of The Islamic Conference, The Islamic Hospital In Jordan. Intenational Conferences On Islamic Medicine: Kuwait: 1980, 1982, Usa, S Africa, Egypt, Malaysia, Pakistan. The contemporary Islamic rennaissance in medicine is expressing itself in many forms. One of them is the islamization of medicine. The Islamization process of the 15^th century will have to avoid the mistakes of the Islamization ptocess of the 3^rd century. Lessons learned from the first islamization experience The islamic revolution in knowledge reached its climax in the 3^rd century How Greek ideas stifled Islamic scientific growth

B. SCIENTIFIC TARBIYAT IN THE QUR’AN

USE OF THE INTELLECT

Condemnation of not using the intellect, dhamm ta’atiil al ‘aql:

2:44, 2:76, 3:65, 5:58, 5:103, 6:32, 7:169, 7:179, 8:22, 10:16, 10:100, 11:51, 12:109, 21:10, 21:68, 22:46, 25:44, 28:60, 29:63, 36:62, 39:43

Condemnation of blind following, dhamm al taqliid al a’ama:  2:170, 5:104, 21:52-54, 26:74-77, 26:136-137, 31:21, 34:43, 37:69-71

Checking information, al tahaqquq min al khabar (p. 388 6:143, 24:4, 24:11-17, 27:27-28, 49:6).

THINKING

Emphasis on thinking, al hatth ‘ala al tafakkur (p. 242): 6:50, 7:184, 30:8, 34:46.

The intellect can reach a conclusion, al hukm al ‘aqli (p. 343 6:136, 10:35, 18:59, 29:4, 37:154, 45:21, 68:36, 68:39).

Thinking by looking at space/horizons, al tafakkur bi al nadhar fi al aafaaq (p 241): 3:191, 7:185, 10:101, 29:20, 30:50, 50:6-7, 80:24, 88:17-20

Thinking by looking at humans,  al tafakkur bi al nadhar fi al anfus (p. 242): 30:8

Thinking by looking at the signs of allah, al tafakkur bi al nadhar fi ayaat al allaah (p 53): 2:219, 2:266, 3:191, 10:24, 13:3, 16:69, 30:8, 38:29, 39:42, 45:13

Thinking about Allah’s creation, al tafakkur fi khalq llaah (p 399): 2:164, 3:190-191, 6:99, 7:54, 7:185, 10:67, 10:101, 13:2-4, 16:10-17, 16:65-70, 21:30-33, 23:70-89, 26:24-28, 27:59-64, 28:71-73, 29:19-20, 30:20-25, 30:48-50, 31:10-11, 41:53, 42:28-29, 45:3-5, 50:6-11, 51:20-21, 79:27-33, 80:24-32, 86:5-7, 88:17-20

Freedom of thought: The Qur’an emphasizes freedom of thought in the form of freedom of belief, hurriyat al aqidat (p 331  2:256, 3:20, 3;32, 3:63-64, 5:92, 10:9, 11;2, 11:57, 16:82, 18:29, 24:54, 57:54-55, 60:6, 64:12, 74:54-55, 76:29, 80:11-12, 81:27-28, 109:1-6).

DESCRIPTION OF CHANGES and MOTION

The Qur’an described the attractive force of the earth, jadhibiyyat al ardh (p 92 13:2, 22:65, 30:25, 31:10, 35:41). It described the motion of the earth (p. 328 2:164, 3;27, 6:76, 7:54, 10:6, 11:44, 13;3, 14:33, 17:12, 18:17, 18:47, 18:86, 18:90, 20:130, 21:33, 22:61, 23:80, 24:44, 25:62, 27:86, 27:88, 28:71-73, 31:29, 35:13, 36:37, 36:40, 39:5, 41:37, 45:5, 50:39-40, 56:4, 57:6, 73:1, 74:33-34, 78:10-11, 81:17-18, 84:3, 91:3-4, 92:1-2, 93:1-2, 99:1-2), the boats (p 329 2:164, 10:22, 11:412-42, 14:33, 22:65, 31:31, 42:32-33, 45:12, 54:13-14, 55:24, 69:11), the sun (p. 329 6:78, 13;2, 21:23, 31:29, 35:13, 36:36, 36:40, 39:5), the moon (p. p 329 6:77, 13:2, 21:33, 31:29, 35:13, 76:39-40, 39:5), the water (p. 330 2:25, 2;266, 3:15, 3:136, 3:195, 7:118, 4:13, 4:57, 4:122, 5:1, 5:85, 5:119, 6:6, 7:43, 9:72, 9:89, 9:10, 10:9, 11:42, 13:35, 14:23, 16:31, 18:31, 20:76, 22:14, 22:23, 25:10, 29:58, 39:20-21, 43:51, 47:12, 48:5, 48:17, 55:50, 57:12, 58:22, 61:1, 64:9, 6:11, 66:8, 85:11, 88:12, 98:8), and of the wind (p, 331 3:117, 10:22, 14:18, 15:22, 18:45, 21:81, 22:31, 30:46, 30:48, 38:36, 42:33).

DESCRIPTION OF THINGS

The Qur’an described mountains, jibaal, as elevated (p 266 11:43, 77:27),  firm (p. 266 13:3, 15:19, 16:15, 21:312, 27:61, 31:10, 41:10, 50:7, 77:27, 78:7, 79:32), stable (p 267 7:143),  refuge (p. 267 16:18), colored (p. 267 35:27), powdered dust (p. 267 56:5), mobile (p. 268 27:88), erect (p. 268 88:19). The Qur’an described the barrier between two oceons (p. 311 25:53, 27:61, 55:19-20). Iron was described as beneficial to humans (p. 323 57:25). Its manufacture (p. 323 18:96-97, 34:10-11) and softening (p. 323 34:10) were also described.

DRAWING CONCLUSIONS FROM EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION

The Qur’an calls upon humans to observe Allah’s signs of Allah in the universe (p 45-49 2:164 ….51:20) and in humans (p. 49-51 3:6 … 90:19). Ibrahim by his empirical observation of the sun and the moon was able to reach true knowledge of Allah (p. 59 6:75-79). His heart was calmed in his belief in resurrection when Allah showed him the revival of birds that he had killed (p. 60 3:260). The Qur’an has described many natural phenomena in detail for example the earth’s gravitational attraction, jaadhibiyat al ardh (p 92 13:2, 22:65, 30:25, 31:10, 35:41). Mountains were also described in detail: height, iritifa’u al jibaal (p 266 11:43, 77:27).

The Qur’an however made it clear that human senses have limitations. For example human vision is limited (p. 379 2:7, 2:17, 2:55, 4:153, 6:103, 7:27, 7:143, 9:26, 9:40, 13:2, 15:15, 24:40, 25:21, 33:9, 36:9, 36:66, 45:23, 47:23, 53:17, 53:35, 56:85, 69:38-39) and can be deceived when it confuses a mirage for water (p. 379 24:39). Human hearing is also limited (p. 381 2:7, 6:46, 7:179, 8:21, 11:20, 18:101, 23:24, 28:36, 35:14, 35:22, 45:23, 52:38).

RATIONAL THINKING and ASSERTIONS BASED ON REASON

In many prohibitions the Qur’an provides logical reasons. For example with regard to alcohol both the benefits and the harms were mentioned (p. 405 2:219, 16:67) and the reason for prohibition was given (p. 405 4:34)

LOGICAL OPERATIONS

The use of similitude, tashbiih,  of two things and phenomena is seen in the following verses: the earth and the movement of the clouds (p 236 27:88), Islam and light (p. 236 5:15-16, 6:122, 13:16-17, 14:1, 14:5, 33:43, 35:20, 57:9, 65:11), resurrection with revival of dead earth (p. 237 7:57, 22:5-6, 30:19, 30:50, 35:9, 41:37, 43:11, 50:9-11), mountains in the hereafter with wool  (p. 70:9, 101:5), the rebellious heart with the rock (p. 238 2:74)/. The unbeliever is described as the similitude of the mute (p 238 2:171, 6:39), the deaf (p. 238 2:171, 6:39, 7:179, 10:42, 11:24, 21:45, 25:44, 30:52, 43:40), the blind (p. 238 2:171, 6:50, 7:179, 10:43, 11:24, 13:16, 30:53, 35;19, 40:58, 41:17, 43:40), cattle (p 238 7:179, 25:44, 47:12),  donkey (p 238 74:49-51), dog (p. 239-9 7:175-176), the dead (p. 239 6:36, 6:122, 30:52, 35:22), foam (p 239 13:17), darkness (p. 757 2:257, 5:1, 6:39, 6:122, 13:16, 14:1, 14:5, 33:43, 57:9, 65:11). The hypocrite, munafiq, is the similitude of the mute (p. 239 2:17-19), the blind (p. 239 2:17-18), the blind (p. 239 2:17-18), blocks of wood (p. 239 63:4). The believer is described as the similitude of far-sightedness, basiir (p. 239 6:50, 11:24, 13:16, 35:19, 40:58), the free (p 240 6:122, 35:22), the hearer (p 240 11:24, 30:53). Humans on the Last day are described as the similitude of the bed, firaash (p 240 101:5). Unity is described as the similitude of a strong building (p. 240 61:4). Boy servants in paradise are described as the similitude of pearls (p. 240 76:19).

RESPECTING THE OTHER OPINION

Discussion and exchange of views is a necessity for humans, dharurat al hiwar (p. 373 2:150, 4:165, 6:149, 16:125, 18:54). The Qur’an has taught the best methods of discussing with others even in controversial matters (p. 347-348 16:125, 29:46, 41:33-34). Discussion has its own etiquette, adab al hiwar (p 375 6:108, 16:125, 29:46). Truth must be revealed (p. 375-376 2:91, 3:71, 21:24). Contradictions must be avoided (p. 376 2:85, 2:91, 6:91, 2:7-8, 25:20, 54:2). Arrogance is condemned (p. 376 28:49-50). The following are attributes of good discussion: objectivity, tajarrud (p. 376 28:49-50, 34:24-25, 34:46, 54:2-4), truthfulness (p 376 3:61), asking for evidence (p. 376-377 2:80, 2:111, 3:65-67, 3:93, 21:24, 25:7, 27:64, 40:56), and knowledge (p. 377 3:66, 10:39, 11:13-14, 22:3, 22:8, 31:20, 40:35).

ABANDONING FALSE PREMISES

EVIDENCE-BASED KNOWLEDGE AND ACTION

The Qur’an calls for evidence, al burhan (p 190-191 2:111 … 78:6-16). It called for establishment of evidence, iqamat al hujjat (p 316-317 2:76-77, 2:150, 2:258, 4:165, 6:75-83, 6”143-144). False evidence is rejected (p. 320 42:15-16, 45:24-26).

OBJECTIVITY, itiqamat

The Qur’an calls for objectivity in measurement (p 100 17:35, 26:182). It condemns turning away from truth, I;iraadh ‘an al haqq (p 132 2:130 … 46:3). Truth must be revealed, idhaar al haqq (p. 337 2:42, 2:146, 3:71, 5:10, 8:6, 12:51, 23:62, 34:23, 41:53, 45:29).

INNOVATION: bid’at vs ibdaa’u

LOGICAL OPERATIONS

Examples and resemblance, tashbiih. The Qur’an has drawn so many examples that challenge the human mind to think by pointing out resemblances between things without explaining what these are.

C. ISLAMIC INPUT CURRICULUM, THE IIUM EXPERIENCE

MUQADDIMAT AL TIBB

The Kulliyah of Medicine of the International Islamic University, Malaysia, is currently experimenting with an approach to Islamization in medicine similar to that pioneered by Ibn Khaldun. It has a 5-year program of Islamic input into the Integrated Medical Curriculum that will be published in 2 volumes under the title ‘Muqaddimat al Tibb: Introduction to the Study and Practice of Medicine for Medical Students and Medical Practitioners’. The programs runs parallel to the medical curriculum. Relevant Islamic concepts on medical conditions are introduced before the students study those conditions. The purpose of medical treatment can be used to illustrate this approach. The western (Euro-American) world-view is that the purpose of medicine is to prevent premature death, prolong life, and may be at some stage in the future discover the cause of aging and thus be able to eliminate death altogether. Medical students at Kuantan are taught that the timing of death, ajal, is in the hands of Allah and that no human, physician or not, can delay or advance it. People will die when their term arrives. The purpose of medicine is therefore not to prevent death but to maintain the human in the best quality of life for the remainder of their life on earth. Since the moment of death is never known to any human with any certainty, the physician will strive his utmost until the last minute to ensure the highest possible quality of life. The two approaches, westerm and Islamic, will lead to differences in the attitudes and behaviors of Muslim and non-Muslim physicians although they have the same quantum of medical knowledge, skill, and technology.

CORRELATION

STUDENT TARBIYAT

D. RESEARCH and APPLICATIONS

INNOVATION and CREATIVITY

RESEARCH

APPLICATION

E. THE CHALLENGE TO EXCEL:

Our situation today was described correctly by Imaan al Shafi more than a thousand years ago as quoted by Jalaluddin al Suyuti in his book al Tibb al Nabawi   After the science which distinguishes between what is halal and what is haram.  I know of no science which is more noble than that of medicine.... Truly the opole of the Book have overcome us and overtaken us in this supreme art”. We feel that the process of Islamization will provide the intellectual stimulation and practical motivation for us to work hard in medical research sot aht we may become leaders of the field.

What can you do as an individual?: You must develop commitment to the discipline reform process. You must master your discipline well; you can not reform or improve what you do not know. If you did not get a traditional Islamic education endeavor to get the minimum essential knowledge of usul al fiqh, Qur’an and hadith methodology. Critique the basic paradigms of your discipline on the basis of tauhid and the universal and perennial values of Islam. Orient your research and teaching to Islamization priorities. Write and publish your ideas and experiences. Net work with others who hold similar views and are engaged in similar endeavours. Teach and inspire others to take up the challenge of educational reform.